THE CROWOOD PRESS

First published in 2015 by
The Crowood Press Ltd
Ramsbury, Marlborough
Wiltshire SN8 2HR

www.crowood.com

This e-book first published in 2015

© Richard Blagrove 2015

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 84797 988 9

Frontispiece: Shutterstock

Acknowledgements

Writing this book would not have been possible without the help and support of several important people. Firstly, I’d like to thank my colleagues at St Mary’s University for their assistance with this project and allowing me access to campus facilities for photo shoots. I am enormously grateful to my models Jo, Jake and Emily for the many hours they spent in the gym and outside, often in the freezing cold, shooting the photographs. A special thank you goes to Christine for her time and considerable patience in taking the photographs in each location. I’d also like to thank the endurance runners I’ve provided coaching support to over the last ten years. The experiences I’ve gained from working with you have provided me with the knowledge and confidence required to write this book. Finally, the most important thank you goes to my wife, Victoria. Without your support and understanding throughout this project, this book would never have come to fruition.

Mo Farah competing in the London Marathon. (Photo: Shutterstock)

PREFACE

Running is arguably the most natural and pure form of physical exercise that the human body can be exposed to. Evolutionary studies suggest our ancestors were endurance runners who used persistence hunting to catch their prey, and the earliest evidence of competitive long-distance running events dates back to 1829BC. In the modern era, participation in endurance running events is at an all-time high, with thousands each year taking part in road-running events in particular, and many now attempting the holy grail of endurance running, the marathon. Dozens of new participation initiatives, charity fund-raising events and endurance challenges have also emerged over the last decade, and have contributed to the rise in popularity of the sport.

It is likely that if you are preparing for an endurance running event you have a goal in mind, whether it be to simply complete the distance, run a personal best or qualify for a major championship. In order to achieve that goal, hopefully you recognize that it is necessary to devise a training programme yourself, one that is carefully planned around the distance of the event and your individual requirements. Logically, your training programme should be predominantly made up of running-based training sessions of various distances, intensities and formats, each designed to enhance a specific feature of your physiology. Traditionally, though, endurance runners and coaches have tended to neglect other forms of training, such as weight training and conditioning techniques. This is perhaps due to a lack of guidance or instruction on which exercises are best to use, but often in the belief that they don’t benefit performance, add unwanted muscle bulk, or cause excessive soreness.

Despite the apparent uncertainty amongst many runners concerning the benefits of strength and conditioning, there does appear to be a growing awareness of its value. Coaches and runners are becoming increasingly keen on learning about the latest new training techniques or ways to stay injury free. Running magazines and the Internet are also littered with advice on the best workouts or exercises to improve running performance. No longer is the running community viewing strength and conditioning as only something élite runners include to give them an edge over their rivals. Despite the rising interest in strength and conditioning for runners, there is unfortunately a lack of high quality literature available. The main motivation for writing this book is therefore to provide a detailed resource for runners, coaches and students of strength and conditioning, that provides accurate and useful guidance.

The aim of this book is to share the knowledge I’ve gained, and the approach I’ve used, with the dozens of endurance runners for whom I have provided strength and conditioning support over the last ten years. The book is designed for any middle- and long-distance runner who is interested in learning about how to improve their performance and to lower injury risk with an evidence-based and scientific approach to their non-running-based training. Whether you plan to participate in a local fun run, or you are a young runner aspiring to compete at the Olympic Games, this book will provide you with a simple and effective set of supplementary exercises which you can tailor to your own individual requirements.

Best of luck with achieving the goal that you’ve set yourself. I hope you find that the information contained in this book adds a new dimension to your training, which will prove useful in helping you towards your goal.

KEY INFORMATION

These key information boxes are included throughout the book as a way of summarizing important information. If you are not interested in the scientific detail and are keen to get cracking with some S&C exercises, just read these boxes to ensure you receive the main messages from each section.

1 | UNDERSTANDING YOUR NEEDS

To appreciate the underlying reasons why strength and conditioning training techniques are effective for endurance runners, it helps to have a basic understanding of endurance running physiology and biomechanics, Based upon the physical qualities that underpin endurance running and the risk factors that contribute towards injury, a set of suitable assessments can then be selected. These will allow you to identify your own strengths and weaknesses so you can tailor a training programme around your own individual needs. The opening section of this book aims to introduce basic scientific concepts associated with strength training, conditioning and endurance running before presenting a series of simple assessments.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING

WHAT IS ‘STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING’?

Twenty years ago the term ‘strength and conditioning’ (S&C) was virtually unheard of, let alone an important element in the physical preparation of sports performers. As standards at an élite level have improved, investment into understanding the science that underpins performance has also increased. Consequently, over the last decade or so, the value of specialist sport science support has begun to be recognized, and S&C has developed into its own industry. Despite the modern professionalism of élite sport, the knowledge and experiences of specialist coaches working with full-time athletes is rarely filtered through to recreational sports performers and young athletes, who would also benefit from a more holistic approach to their sports preparation.

S&C is associated with any training methodologies that enhance the physical preparedness of athletes for their sports training and performance. This means that any training that isn’t directly set by the technical sports coach is considered S&C. In a broad sense, S&C has three primary goals: to improve performance, to improve the capacity for training, and to lower the risk of injury.

To improve performance: The training techniques described in this book are likely to result in a number of adaptations to the nervous and muscular systems, which will directly enhance your running performance. These include improvements in your ability to generate force with each stride, more effective use of elastic energy from tendons, and a more efficient running style.

To improve the capacity for training: An indirect benefit of additional physical training is that you will be able to tolerate a greater volume of running. Without a foundation of general athleticism, robustness and physical competence developed through S&C activities, it is very difficult to tolerate progressively higher loads of training over a long period of time.

To lower the risk of injury: Due to the high volumes of repetitive loading on the body and on the joints of the lower limb in particular, it is no surprise that endurance running has a high prevalence of over-use type injuries. Placing load through a tissue that is vulnerable to injury using specific strengthening exercises will result in improved tolerance to repetitive stress. Reducing injury risk also indirectly results in improved performance, as less training time is lost through being side-lined with an injury.

Education

An often forgotten objective of S&C is to educate athletes and their coaches on the importance of supplementary physical training. If, like many, the concepts and exercises addressed in this book are new to you, it is important that you understand why they are valuable to your running performance, and how they should be correctly carried out. Hopefully in this way, your ‘buy-in’ and engagement with an S&C programme will be much better. Improving awareness of S&C for young athletes is also particularly important both in terms of maximizing their potential and establishing good habits.

KEY INFORMATION

Strength and conditioning (S&C) involves any physical training activities outside of your running programme. Strength training has been shown to improve running performance and reduce the risk of getting injured. Improving basic movement skills and physical capacities will also allow you to tolerate higher volumes of running in the future.

WHAT IS ‘STRENGTH TRAINING’?

Many runners and their coaches will often associate the term ‘strength training’ with muscle-bound men pumping iron in the gym and grunting loudly! This obviously isn’t the outcome that an endurance runner wants, and neither does it have to be.

‘Strength’ is loosely defined as the highest amount of force that a muscle group can produce under specific conditions. Fundamentally, we all require a basic level of strength simply to move around and complete everyday tasks. Everything we do is underpinned by the ability of specific muscles to produce force during a co-ordinated movement. So if we want to start moving quickly, as when we run, we need the capacity to be able to produce a high level of force rapidly through this movement pattern. Running speed then ultimately is directly related to the amount of force you are able to produce against the ground during a short period of time, so if you want to learn how to run faster there is a logical reason to make your running muscles stronger!

The ‘Specificity’ Trap

The key phrase contained in the definition of strength above is that force is always expressed under ‘specific conditions’. This means that just because one person shows exceptional strength in a gym exercise, it doesn’t mean that they will be strong on a different skill, or, more importantly, be able to express force well during running. So strength is always specific to the movement pattern we are expressing force in, but also the speed and direction we are developing the force. With that in mind, it is important that when you select exercises to improve your strength, they carry a degree of ‘specificity’.

Being specific doesn’t mean simply replicating or mimicking the running action, but selecting the right tool for the job. Just because an exercise doesn’t resemble the running action, it doesn’t mean it is useless. In fact you’ll find that many of the exercises contained in the chapters of this book look nothing like running. However, each provides a specific overload to a physiological system or area of the body to drive a particular adaptive response. It is therefore important to think about the type of stress an exercise imposes upon the body and what outcome that stress will produce, rather than simply making sure it looks like running.

When it comes to strength training exercises, to ensure you achieve a degree of specificity that allows transfer to the running action, most exercises should involve the lower body producing a ‘triple extension’ movement pattern. Triple extension is a simultaneous extension of the ankle, knee and hip joints, such as when you jump in the air. Triple extension movements allow you to accelerate your body with a high level of force, exactly the same as in the running stride. Extending at these three joints in an explosive action not only takes advantage of the strong, powerful extensor muscles located in the lower limb, but also their ability to transmit force across the joints from hip, to knee, to ankle and through the ground.

There are a number of different types of strength that all reflect how force is being generated by the neuromuscular system. Luckily for us these are all very trainable qualities, which are important to running, and can be enhanced with the correct type of training.

KEY INFORMATION

Strength training involves improving your muscles’ ability to produce force. The training exercises used to develop strength should bear some similarity to the running action, but shouldn’t necessarily attempt to replicate a stride. Exercises should involve a movement pattern termed ‘triple extension’, which means your ankles, knees and hips should all extend simultaneously, like when you jump.

Maximum (or absolute) strength

Maximum strength is the quality that people usually associate with strength. It is the highest amount of force an individual can develop through a specific movement pattern, and so is best represented by the amount of weight you can lift on a given exercise. Powerlifters who can squat in excess of three times their bodyweight, and bench press twice their bodyweight, are examples of athletes who have a high level of maximum strength. Obviously strength of these magnitudes is of much less benefit to endurance runners, but this doesn’t mean that maximizing your strength isn’t important.

Relative strength

The maximum amount of force a muscle group can develop is related to both the size of the muscles contributing to a movement, and also the ability of the nervous system to activate as many muscle fibres as possible. Obviously an endurance runner’s performance would be negatively affected by adding any muscle bulk, so ‘specific’ maximum strength training should involve prescription, which teaches the nervous system to switch on more muscle fibres. This means that rather than maximum strength being the key quality, ‘relative strength’ is more important, as it represents the force that can be produced per kilogram of bodyweight.

Based upon the definition of maximum strength, improving this quality is best achieved by performing resistance-training exercises that use relatively heavy loads for a low number of repetitions. As Chapter 6 will address, loads used during key exercises must be individually prescribed. If you are new to this type of training, it is likely you will get stronger relatively quickly simply by practising technique with a moderate load.

KEY INFORMATION

There are several different types of ‘strength’ that are important for a runner to develop. Relative strength is the maximum force that you can generate per kg of body weight. Putting on muscle bulk is a disadvantage to endurance running performance; getting stronger without adding unwanted mass is important.

Explosive strength

The ability to generate a high level of force against the ground is an important determinant of running performance. However, during the running stride you spend only a fraction of a second in contact with the ground, therefore you have a limited amount of time to generate this force. So although strength is defined as the maximum amount of force you can generate, this definition doesn’t account for the fact that during running, force needs to be produced very rapidly. Producing strength quickly or explosively is a separate but very trainable quality that all runners need to develop to enhance their performance. Chapter 6 provides some key exercises that you can use to develop your explosive strength.

Reactive (or plyometric) strength

Of all the four main strength qualities defined here, reactive strength is undoubtedly the most important to the endurance runner. As explained later in this section, the running action relies heavily on the elastic properties of tendons and connective tissue to produce the majority of force. Instead of relying on the muscles to produce the force, which requires a considerable amount of energy, the body makes use of these passive tissues, which are incredibly efficient at storing and returning elastic energy. In much the same way as a spring, you can improve your body’s reactive strength qualities with a training technique called plyometrics. These exercises teach your legs to bounce along more effectively, and therefore muscles fatigue at a slower rate.

KEY INFORMATION

When you run, your foot is only in contact with the ground for a fraction of a second, giving your body very little time to produce force. Developing your ‘explosive strength’ will help you generate force more rapidly. During running, the tendons in your legs act like springs to help you move efficiently and save energy. Your ‘reactive strength’ is your ability to use these tendons effectively and can be improved with plyometric training.

WHAT IS ‘CONDITIONING’?

Although endurance runners will benefit from incorporating strength training into their programme, there is a whole range of other non-running based training activities that also offer benefits. In a broad sense, these are termed ‘conditioning’ activities. Conditioning can range from a simple stretching routine, to exercises designed to improve the integrity of a specific muscle or tendon in an area susceptible to injury.

Almost all exercises that can be considered ‘conditioning’ will bear very little resemblance to the running action. You may therefore feel they are simply not specific enough to be included in an S&C programme. However, it is important to bear in mind that in order to improve qualities such as posture, mobility, or the tolerance of a specific tissue to repeated loading, often a movement pattern or stimulus is required that doesn’t necessarily look or feel like running.

Corrective exercise programmes based upon the results of a movement screen also fall into the category of ‘conditioning’ exercises. Whether it’s a previous injury that has caused you to move incorrectly, or a bad habit you’ve picked up causing a muscle to become lazy, conditioning exercises should be integrated into your daily training routine to reduce the risk of injury.

KEY INFORMATION

Any exercises that don’t directly improve force-related qualities are termed ‘conditioning’ activities. These tend to be movements that have little similarity to the running technique but overload specific areas of the body to improve posture, technique or resilience to injury.

CHAPTER 2: PHYSIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

When the objective of your sport is to run for an extended distance as fast as possible, there is no getting away from the fact that your heart and lungs need to be well developed to perform well. Many S&C training exercises will seem very ‘unspecific’ when compared to the movement patterns and energy demands associated with endurance running performance. It is therefore important to gain a clear understanding of the physical qualities that limit endurance running performance, so a sound rationale for the use of any non-running based training techniques can be developed.

Fig. 2.1: The main determinants of endurance running performance and the main physiological benefits that S&C can provide.

A considerable amount of scientific research has been conducted aimed at identifying the factors that may contribute towards becoming faster at distance running. These determinants are well documented in the literature, and include maximal oxygen uptake, fractional utilization, various thresholds on a lactate curve, and running economy. The best way to develop these qualities is obviously through specific running-based training, but other supplementary training may also contribute towards improvements in running speed. A summary of the main qualities that are important for endurance running performance and the physiological benefits that S&C offers is presented in Fig. 2.1.

MAXIMAL OXYGEN UPTAKE

For the running population at large, a physiological measure known as ‘maximal oxygen uptake’ (abbreviated to VO₂max.) is widely recognized as the best predictor of performance from distances of a mile upwards. Put simply, your VO₂max. is the highest amount of oxygen you can breathe in, transport to your working muscles, and use effectively to resynthesize the energy currency in your body, known as ‘adenosine triphosphate’ (ATP), to produce movement. For any given endurance running event that has participants of a wide range of abilities, VO₂max. will generally be the best predictor of performance. In other words, the faster runners will have the highest VO₂max. scores, the slowest will have the lowest VO₂max. scores.

Given the importance of VO₂max. to endurance running performance, it is crucial that strategies are used to develop this quality. Typically, runners will utilize a combination of high intensity interval training and long, slow distance running to develop their VO₂max. and therefore improve their performance.

KEY INFORMATION

Your maximal oxygen uptake (known as your VO₂max.) is a measure of how effectively you can use oxygen to produce energy while running. VO₂max. tends to be an excellent predictor of running times over most endurance running distances, with faster runners possessing better VO₂max. scores.

Implications for Strength and Conditioning

Increases in muscle mass will reduce performance

Although there is very little evidence to suggest that S&C activities will directly enhance the VO₂max. of a runner, it is important to recognize that distance running performance is heavily dependent upon your body mass. This is particularly obvious if you consider that VO₂max. is measured as the volume of oxygen that a runner can use per kilogram of their bodyweight per minute (written as ml/kg/min). Therefore any increase in muscle mass that may come from a weight-training programme will be detrimental to performance. As addressed in Chapter 5 of the book, the likelihood of a runner putting on muscle mass as a result of engaging in a regular routine of strength training is highly unlikely. The volumes of weight training and the frequency of sessions required to develop muscle mass are unnecessary for a runner, and far less time is taken to achieve the adaptations required to improve running performance.

Realizing your genetic potential

A runner’s VO₂max. has a large genetic component, but runners who solely utilize a low intensity-based training approach to enhance VO₂max. may never fully reach their aerobic potential. Although VO₂max. represents the ceiling of your aerobic performance, the speed at which this is achieved is quite fast, at least in relative terms. This means that if you are unable to access the muscle fibres (called fast-twitch muscle fibres) that enable you to run at these faster speeds during interval-based training sessions, your VO₂max. will never be developed to its full extent. Strength training has been shown to enhance recruitment of these fast-twitch muscle fibres, and therefore more will be accessible when there is a requirement to run faster. In essence, strength training will allow you to access ‘more gears’, which is crucial to maximizing your VO₂max.

For the élite athlete who may often have to rely on their sprint finish, being able to access as many muscle fibres as possible is critical in the closing stages of a race. The difference between the fastest speed you can sprint at and your target race pace is often termed your ‘speed reserve’. Initially increasing this speed reserve by becoming stronger and using high intensity interval training should make your race pace feel relatively easier, and provide a greater buffer, which you can later tap into as you increase your training.

KEY INFORMATION

VO₂max. is partly dependent upon your body weight. A well-designed weight training programme is unlikely to produce increases in muscle mass. The best way to enhance your VO₂max. is to run fast during interval training sessions. Strength training will allow you to access more ‘fast twitch muscle fibres’, which will allow you to run faster during these interval training sessions.

FRACTIONAL UTILIZATION

Possessing a high VO₂max. is crucial if you want to succeed as an endurance runner, but the speed at which you reach your VO₂max. is somewhere around 3km race pace, or the speed you can sustain for no more than around ten minutes of running. So for distances of further than 3km, there are other important features of your physiology that are worth considering.

One quality that has been shown to be an accurate determinant of performance at longer distances, such as the marathon in particular, is called ‘fractional utilization’. This is a fancy way of describing the percentage of your VO₂max. that you can sustain for a given distance. The best distance runners in the world have remarkably good fractional utilizations and are able to get to about 90 per cent of their VO₂max., and then operate at this value for an hour or two. Lesser trained runners might perhaps be able to sustain 90 per cent of their VO₂max. for around twenty minutes.

So if the event you’re aiming for is above 5km in distance, and particularly if you are a marathon runner, training for extended periods at your race pace to try and improve your fractional utilization will be of benefit. These types of medium to long continuous runs at a hard but sustainable pace are often called ‘tempo runs’ by running coaches.

Implications for Strength and Conditioning

Recruiting the correct type of muscle fibres

When we exercise, we are constantly required to produce, stabilize and control force. During running at sub-maximal speeds, our nervous system can choose to recruit different types of muscle fibre, which have different characteristics, to perform the same task. In untrained individuals, these recruitment patterns tend to be quite random, and as a result, muscle fibres are often used that are inappropriate for the task of running for long periods. If fast-twitch muscle fibres are recruited too early for moderate speed running, you will end up tiring quickly as these fibres have poor resistance to fatigue. Runners who can activate the correct types of muscle fibre for extended periods of time are more likely to be able to sustain their speed.

Recruiting the correct muscle fibres for the right job is a learned skill, known as ‘intra-muscular co-ordination’. Strength training results in adaptation to the nervous system, which helps the body select the most appropriate muscle fibres for a task. This allows you to control movement more effectively. In part, this explains why several scientific studies have found that strength training delays time to exhaustion at a sub-maximal running speed, because slow-twitch fibres are preferentially selected over fast-twitch fibres. So for the same fraction of your VO₂max., strength training will enable you to run for a longer period of time.

Strength training improves co-ordination

One of the main adaptations you’ll not even notice as a result of performing a strength-training routine will be an improvement in coordination. This essentially means the nervous system gets much better at switching on muscles that are needed for movement and stabilization at the appropriate time, and switching off muscles that need to relax in a more timely fashion. So without even changing your technique, strength and plyometric training teaches your nervous system and muscles to behave better (known as ‘inter-muscular co-ordination’). This has also been suggested to be one of the benefits of running lots of miles: your technique becomes more engrained and your nervous system becomes better at producing the same repeated co-ordinated action. However, if you are new to running or a young athlete, running high mileages isn’t a safe or effective way of improving performance, so strength and plyometric training offers a means of fine tuning your nervous system without the added risk of suffering an injury.

KEY INFORMATION

The fraction of your VO₂max. that you can run at for a given distance is another important predictor of your performance. Strength training will improve the co-ordination and timing of your muscles and nervous system. This allows you to use the right types of muscles fibres for the speed you run and move with more control, thereby improving this important quality.

LACTATE THRESHOLDS

Although maximizing VO₂max. and fractional utilization should be your primary concern, there are other factors that play a part in determining performance. Whenever you start to move around more vigorously, as when we run, there is an increased requirement for energy, which is produced in our muscles from ATP. Unfortunately the body has a limited amount of ATP, so during exercise it uses a number of clever ways to maintain (or resynthesize) its supply. These are known as our energy systems, of which there are three main pathways, which attempt to help us maintain the speed we want to run at. Having a basic awareness of the main characteristics of these three energy systems is important to understanding how S&C might be beneficial to your physiology. The main features of these three energy systems are shown in Table 2a.

Energy system | Fuel | Rate of energy supply | Duration (seconds) | Typical activities
Phosphocreatine (anaerobic) | Phosphocreatine | Very fast | 3–15 | Sprint finish Resistance training Plyometrics
Anaerobic glycolysis | Glucose | Fast | 15–180 | Uphill running 200–600m intervals Circuit training
Aerobic | Carbohydrate and fat | Slow | >180 | Long intervals Steady running

Table 2a: Main features of the three energy systems used to resynthesize ATP.

During very high intensity exercise, such as sprinting or lifting weights, ATP is primarily resynthesized by a substance called phosphocreatine, which is stored within muscle cells. Phosphocreatine is great at providing the energy for explosive and fast activities because it is readily available and can be used without oxygen (known as ‘anaerobic’), and is capable of producing huge bursts of energy. The down side, however, is that there is a very limited supply of phosphocreatine in the muscle, so for endurance performances this form of energy is only really important for sudden bursts of effort, such as a sprint finish.

If an extended period of high intensity effort is required, as in a 400m run or a long uphill drag in a cross-country race, the body must rely on another type of anaerobic energy. These types of effort are fuelled by energy from glucose, which is broken down from foods high in carbohydrate, and then stored in our muscles. Similar to the phosphocreatine pathway, oxygen isn’t required for glucose to maintain our ATP levels, so again energy is provided quite rapidly. The fancy word for this process is ‘anaerobic glycolysis’. The problem with our anaerobic glycolysis energy system is that instead of running out of energy supply, like the phosphocreatine system, we are limited by the waste products it produces that cause muscle fatigue. I’m sure you’ve all heard of a dreaded substance called ‘lactic acid’, which is one of the main by-products produced during anaerobic glycolysis. Lactic acid itself isn’t harmful, and doesn’t actually slow us down during high-intensity running efforts. But some of the substances that lactic acid splits into directly impair muscular contraction and cause those feelings of discomfort and pain.

One substance that is derived from lactic acid is ‘lactate’. This can be measured in the blood to indicate the extent to which we are using our anaerobic glycolysis system. Generally, the higher our levels of lactate, the more we are resynthesizing ATP without oxygen, so therefore the sooner we are likely to fatigue. In essence, blood lactate readings give us an idea of the degree to which we are relying on anaerobic metabolism, so how hard we are working during an endurance performance. The faster you run, the higher your blood lactate score will be, so the less likely it’ll be that you can sustain that level of effort for a long period.

For running distances of above about a mile, ATP is principally derived from the energy stored in our body (carbohydrate and fat), combined with molecules of oxygen. This is known as ‘aerobic metabolism’, and is the most important energy system for the endurance runner. Stressing this energy system regularly with long steady runs will certainly enhance how efficiently carbohydrate and fat are broken down in the presence of oxygen to maintain a plentiful supply of energy.

Importantly though, whenever you exercise all three of the energy systems described above are being used simultaneously. The degree to which each is being accessed mainly depends upon the intensity at which you run. On a slow jog, it is likely you are generating around 95 per cent of your energy from the aerobic system, because little energy is required and the body has sufficient time to allow oxygen to break down carbohydrate and fat. But if we speed up to 5km race speed, you require energy too rapidly for the aerobic system to cope fully, so around three-quarters of energy comes from aerobic sources, and the remaining 25 per cent must come from anaerobic energy pathways. At 5km running speed this means our blood lactate levels are much higher, so the speed is less sustainable.

Fig. 2.2: Graph showing a typical blood lactate response to running at different speeds.

Fig. 2.2 shows a typical ‘lactate curve’ for an endurance runner, which reflects the degree to which anaerobic metabolism is contributing as the speed of running increases. As running speed gradually climbs, lactate values in the blood start to rise, slowly at first but then in big jumps, as suddenly you can’t supply the energy that is required through aerobic means to sustain the faster speeds. There are a number of running speeds identified on the curve that correspond to those at which endurance runners will typically train and race. As well as VO₂max., the speed at which a given lactate value is reached is an important and key predictor of performance.

An overriding objective of training is to shift this curve along the horizontal axis to the right, so a faster speed is being attained for the same lactate value. This is primarily achieved through interval training performed at running speeds around 10km pace and faster, and also ‘tempo’-type efforts at marathon up to 10km speed for periods of between 20 and 60min.

Implications for Strength and Conditioning

Improvement of anaerobic qualities

The main changes to your physiology that will result from S&C activities are related to your nervous system and muscles. However, once you begin a regular routine of S&C work, it will become apparent that most of the exercises used are executed at a higher intensity than most of your running training, and are performed in sets that usually last between 10 and 60 seconds.

A secondary but still important set of adaptations that you’ll gain from S&C activities therefore relate to improving how energy is metabolized anaerobically. The important quality that will improve relates to your ability to tolerate the waste products (or ‘metabolites’) that begin to build up in your muscles and cause fatigue when you are forced to use your anaerobic glycolysis pathway.

KEY INFORMATION

There are three ‘energy systems’ that maintain your energy supply during exercise. Two systems supply energy for high intensity activities without oxygen. The other uses oxygen to supply energy for lower intensity exercise, like endurance running. Most S&C activities are high intensity in nature so help to develop your energy systems that don’t use oxygen. This can help offset fatigue at faster running speeds, such as 5km where these systems contribute to a greater extent.

Because it is unlikely that you’ll be using running sessions that predominantly rely on anaerobic energy systems on a regular basis, S&C sessions are a useful strategy to ensure you still improve these anaerobic-related qualities. By improving your ability to clear waste products rapidly, this will also help your running performance. At speeds such as 5km and 10km speed where anaerobic contribution is quite large (see Fig. 2.2), an ability to deal with waste products becomes important.

RUNNING ECONOMY

Whereas VO₂max. is the maximum amount of oxygen that you can use, running economy is essentially just the ‘VO₂’ part. This is therefore defined as the amount of oxygen that is used at a given speed under VO₂max. Logically it would appear that this shouldn’t be different between individuals, as it should require the same amount of energy per kilogram to move at a sub-maximal running speed. However, when VO₂ is measured in a physiology laboratory, a wide range of values is found for different individuals. This suggests that this is a very important determinant of endurance running performance.

In fact, running economy appears to be the most important feature of your physiology to improve, particularly if you’ve been involved with the sport for a number of years. In groups of well trained runners, VO₂max. scores are often quite similar, and more importantly are actually poor predictors of who will be the fastest at distances of over 5km. Oxygen consumption (VO₂) at race speed provides a much more accurate impression of who is the superior runner, so finding strategies to obtain very low VO₂ scores at sub-maximal speeds is key to becoming faster.

A wide range of factors influences running economy, including anthropometrics, gender, training background, footwear, bodyweight, technique and age. From a running perspective, both interval training performed at target race speeds, and long slow distance running are thought to aid in the development of running economy. Importantly, though, there is a large body of evidence that indicates that training techniques associated with S&C play an important role in enhancing running economy.

Implications for Strength and Conditioning

Strength training improves force-generating ability

The main benefit to engaging in a regular strength training routine will be an enhanced ability to generate force against the ground. By becoming stronger in exercises that involve extending through the ankle, knee and hip, such as squats and step-ups, your ability to exert force through similar movements will also improve. This will result in longer strides and therefore faster running speeds. As a result, your running economy will improve, as you will be able to run at a quicker speed without any added effort.

Improving running technique

You can probably recall dozens of times when you’ve watched a person running and cringed at how awkwardly they move! Having a poor running style on its own is unlikely to result in poor running economy at sub-maximal speeds, because each person adapts quite quickly to their own style. Importantly though, poor running mechanics is associated with a greater incidence of injury, so it is more important to address the issue from an injury risk perspective.

A poor running technique may, however, ultimately limit progress beyond a certain level of performance and prevent economical movement at faster speeds. For well trained runners in particular, improving elements of running technique is likely to reduce the oxygen cost of running. By learning how to prepare and move limbs into positions that will more effectively generate force and use elastic energy from tendons, running economy will be improved.

For young athletes in particular, developing a sound running action is particularly important. Developing good movement habits will offset the risk of injury in the long term, and ensure an efficient style that will support long-term development.

Using your tendons more effectively

During the running action, the elastic properties of tendons (particularly the Achilles tendon) and connective tissue contribute a substantial amount (around 30 to 40 per cent) of energy to propel you forwards. Unlike the muscular energy that is derived through the resynthesis of ATP, as described previously, the energy provided by tendons is free, so requires no additional fuel from dietary sources. Energy is stored and returned rapidly using a process known as the ‘stretch-shortening cycle’, explained in more detail in Chapter 7 (Plyometrics). Tendons, and to a lesser extent connective tissue, essentially behave like elastic bands: when stretched and released they return their energy at high velocity.

There are large differences between the extents to which runners use their tendons to contribute towards generating force. Runners who possess a greater level of elasticity in their tendons have more contribution from their stretch-shortening cycle to provide energy for movement, and therefore have a superior running economy. There is also a large body of scientific evidence to show that plyometric training (essentially jumping and hopping exercises) improves the ability of tendons to store and return energy effectively, thereby enhancing running economy.

KEY INFORMATION

‘Running economy’ describes how much oxygen you use at a given running speed. Particularly for well-trained runners, running economy is a very important determinant of performance. Several S&C activities have been shown to enhance running economy, including resistance training, which improves your stride length, and plyometric training, which improves the ability of your tendons to store and return elastic energy.

CHAPTER 3: BIOMECHANICAL AND INJURY CONSIDERATIONS

Running is one of the most fundamental and natural movement patterns a human can perform, yet running effectively requires a complex series of more simple movements that need to be integrated together with skill and good timing. If you read almost any running magazine or website, you won’t have to look far to find some sort of advice on how to improve your technique and run more efficiently. The problem with quite generic recommendations on how to run ‘correctly’ is that all runners will default to their most efficient style, partly based upon their anthropometric make-up and partly due to how they learned to run.

Although there is not necessarily a perfect way to run, there are certainly some common biomechanical characteristics that all effective runners possess. This chapter will describe the important kinetic (force-related) and kinematic (movement-related) aspects of a running stride, which provide a rationale for including specific S&C activities in an endurance runner’s training programme. The final part of this chapter also includes a section that considers the most prevalent endurance running-related injuries, and offers some basic guidance on how injury risk can be minimized.

THE PRODUCTION OF FORCE

The goal for most runners is to complete a given distance in the least possible time, so a good place to start when looking at the biomechanics of running is how we propel ourselves forwards at a faster rate. When considering how force is produced during running, a classic mistake that is often made by many coaches and runners, is to consider that running speed is the product of stride length and stride frequency, and they then attempt to directly enhance either one of these variables. Coaching cues such as ‘stride out’, or ‘quicken your stride tempo’, often do more harm than good by making runners work harder and therefore use more oxygen. The problem with describing running speed in this way, is that both stride length and frequency are the end outcomes of a multitude of factors, so every runner will self-optimize to find what works best for them. To understand how to run faster and more efficiently, we need to unpick the qualities that underpin stride length and frequency.

In general, stride length has a linear relationship to running speed, in that the faster you run, the longer the strides you will take. This isn’t achieved by actively reaching further forwards, nor is it a good idea to try and push off against the ground for longer. In fact the position of your foot when it hits the ground and as it leaves should be about the same, irrespective of running speed. The way that greater running speeds are actually achieved is by applying a higher level of force to the ground.

Fig. 3.1: Forces acting on the body during the running stride.

But why is applying vertical force so important if we want to move in a horizontal direction? The easiest way to understand this concept is by examining the forces that the body is being subjected to as we run, as shown in Fig. 3.1. The main external force acting upon the body at all times is gravity, therefore the only surface we have to apply force against in order to overcome gravity is the ground. When you initially break into a jog, in the first stride or two you’ll naturally lean forward and orientate your body at an angle to ensure you progress in a horizontal direction. The force you’ve applied is still predominantly vertical, though, it just appears to be horizontal because of the resultant motion you’ve created.

Once you’re jogging at a pace you’re comfortable with, you’ll notice your body comes upright, because you no longer wish to accelerate. To maintain this pace, all you need to do is simply keep overcoming the effect that gravity is having on your body! So each stride is like a mini vertical jump upwards, rather than a pull or push forwards.

There are also some small horizontal forces acting on you when you run, which represent the friction provided by the surface and air resistance. If friction is poor, as when you hit a muddy patch in a cross-country race or you are running into a howling gale, you’ll find you’ll naturally lean your trunk forwards slightly to give yourself more horizontal purchase against the ground and to apply more force against the wind. In any case, the ground is all you’ve got to work against because gravity is the main force that you need to overcome.

Fig. 3.2: Differences in force profiles between a runner moving slowly with a long ground contact time (A) and a runner moving quickly with a short ground contact (B).

Based upon this discussion, what do you have to do to become a faster runner and move at a faster pace from a biomechanical perspective? When jogging along at a comfortable pace, the ground is moving past you quite slowly, so you can get away with spending a long time on the ground to create the force needed to overcome gravity. This is shown in Fig. 3.2, as the curved line A. Here, enough force is applied to the ground to send you upwards against gravity, and you are moving along slowly enough to apply this force over a long period of time.

KEY INFORMATION

During running, the main force you need to overcome to keep moving forward at the same speed is gravity. If you want to run at a faster speed you need to apply a higher level of force to the ground in a shorter period of time.

When you start to speed up, the ground starts moving past you at a faster rate. So each time you hit the ground, to stop yourself braking and slowing down, you still need to produce enough force to overcome gravity but now in a far shorter period of time. This is represented by curved line B in Fig. 3.2, which has the same area under the curve as line A, so the same amount of total force is needed to overcome gravity. But the force is applied much faster, so both the peak and initial development of force application is much higher. Simply put, you need to apply more force against the ground in a shorter period of time.

MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

Muscle contraction type | Definition | Key muscles during running
Concentric | Muscle produces force by shortening under tension | Gluteals, hamstrings and hip flexors
Eccentric | Muscle actively lengthens under tension | Hamstrings and calf
Isometric | Muscle produces force while remaining at same length | Quadriceps and calf
Stretch-shortening cycle | Moving rapidly from an eccentric to a concentric contraction to make use of stored elastic energy | Calf/Achilles tendon

Table 3a: Muscle contraction types and their occurrence during the running stride.

So if we accept that our running speed is mainly a product of how much and how rapidly force is produced during ground contact, we now need to consider the best way to produce this force. Muscles are capable of producing force in a number of ways, and these are summarized in Table 3a; each of these muscle contraction types is used at some point during the running cycle. It is the correct application and sequencing of various muscle actions that allows you to produce more force to run more quickly.

Fig. 3.3: Phases of a stretch-shortening cycle during running.

Fig. 3.3 shows where some of the main muscle actions that contribute towards propulsion occur, and how they combine to elicit an effective stretch-shortening cycle. As your foot strikes the ground, the majority of muscles in your lower limb immediately start battling against gravity to prevent your legs folding underneath you. Because you are fighting against gravity to push yourself back up (and into the next stride), the muscles around your ankles, knees and hips lengthen under a great deal of tension, known as an ‘eccentric contraction’. As you are not falling from a particularly big height from one stride to the next, the ankle and knee in particular will flex only slightly, and minimizing this collapse towards the ground is a key part of running faster.

KEY INFORMATION

There are three main types of muscle contraction that occur during the running stride: muscle lengthening under tension (eccentric), a static contraction (isometric) and a muscle shortening (concentric). When these contractions combine rapidly during the ground contact phase of the running stride, it is termed a ‘stretch-shortening cycle’.

The Achilles tendon, which attaches the calf to the heel, is a long, thick elastic structure that also stretches rapidly during the initial part of ground contact. This is an incredibly important element of the stretch-shortening cycle, as the Achilles is capable of storing large amounts of energy. The longer the distance over which the Achilles can stretch during the early part of ground contact, the more energy will be stored for later release.

Once the muscles have managed to halt your decent towards the ground, they then reach a point of transition known as the ‘amortization phase’, where they are briefly in an isometric or static state of contraction. Again, muscles contained in the calf complex and around the knee (plus deep stabilizers of the hip) are required to work particularly hard at this point. The energy absorbed in the Achilles tendon is waiting to be used, but it can only be stored there for less than a quarter of a second before it is dissipated as heat and is completely wasted. This is why springing right out of this bottom position of ground contact is so important: the free energy stored in your Achilles tendon won’t hang around for long!

From this isometric state, the muscles then begin to reverse their action and propel your body in the direction you want to go, which is upwards. This means the majority of the muscles of the lower limb begin to actively shorten, a process known as a ‘concentric contraction’. One of the key muscles capable of delivering high levels of force at this point is the strongest muscles in the body, the gluteals, located in the buttocks. The hamstrings are also important here as they also contribute with an explosive concentric contraction, and direct push-off horizontally in the late stance phase. Many endurance runners possess weak gluteals, so rely heavily on their quadriceps to help propel them forwards during the concentric phase. Although the quadriceps are quite strong in their own right, these runners are not optimizing this crucial phase of the running pattern. Muscles around the hips, particularly the gluteals, play several other important roles during running; these are highlighted in Chapter 11.

The concentric phase is also where the energy stored in the Achilles tendon is used to contribute to force production. Whereas the concentric action of the muscles requires energy fuels and oxygen to perform their work, the energy acquired from the Achilles tendon is returned for free. Runners who use their Achilles tendons effectively are able to obtain around half their force from the energy stored in each cycle. Runners who are poor at controlling eccentric forces and move into the concentric phase slowly, will characteristically carry their hips quite low and seem to spend a long time in contact with the ground. They utilize very little elastic energy, so are forced to use muscular work to a greater extent. S&C activities will improve how well you use your stretch-shortening cycle, both in terms of the structural qualities of muscles and tendons, plus learning how to place your legs in positions to better access these qualities.

As you increase your running speed and you are required to produce force in a shorter period of time, the demand to move from an eccentric to a concentric regime of muscular work also increases. It is therefore crucial that your muscles (particularly those around the ankle and knee) are able to withstand higher eccentric muscle forces and can ‘switch on’ rapidly, in order to reach a state of isometric tension quickly. When you observe most of the top endurance runners in the world, they are capable of doing this very well. This means they use energy from their tendons more effectively and therefore have superior running economy.

KEY INFORMATION

During the running stride, when the foot strikes the ground muscles work eccentrically. It is at this point that energy is stored in tendons. When you push off the ground, muscles around the hips work concentrically and the energy stored in tendons is also released to help propel you forward.

The Implications for Strength and Conditioning

Hopefully it is fairly obvious that there are potentially large benefits to be gained by incorporating S&C activities into your training to make you a faster runner. Based upon the discussion of how force is produced during the running action, there are several important physical qualities and muscle groups that should be targeted during S&C sessions.

The Achilles tendon: This tendon has a large potential to store and return energy during each stride to contribute to force production. The stiffer the Achilles tendon, the more likely it is to contribute effectively, as it will essentially spring back more rapidly. Weight training exercises that directly load the Achilles tendon, and more importantly plyometric training, will enhance this stiffness quality.

The calf and quadriceps muscles: The extent to which the Achilles tendon is used to generate force is in part dependent upon how well the muscles around the knee anchor its position to provide a stable base. In this way the Achilles tendon (rather than the muscles) stretches over a greater distance, allowing it to store more elastic energy. It is therefore important that the calf and the quadriceps muscles in particular can activate and withstand rapid rates of eccentric loading to reach high levels of isometric tension. This is one of the principal reasons why many studies that have used progressive programmes of plyometric training have shown such positive outcomes on running economy.

The gluteals and hamstrings: These are known as the ‘posterior chain’, and play an important role in the correct positioning of the foot at ground contact; they also provide force generation during the propulsive phase of ground contact. Weight-training exercises with relatively heavy loads that involve hinging at the hip such as squats, deadlifts and hip thrusts will strengthen these muscles.

Explosive force: An ability to generate high force in the muscles of the lower limb is obviously important, but developing high levels of force is only useful in running if it can be produced rapidly, which is a separate and highly trainable quality. It is also crucial to include explosive strength exercises that particularly emphasize hip extension, and recruitment of the posterior chain.

KEY INFORMATION

S&C activities can have a beneficial impact upon the stretch-shortening cycle to make you a faster runner. Plyometric training improves the ability of your Achilles tendon to store and release more elastic energy. Resistance training exercises improve muscles’ ability to hold the knee in a strong position during ground contact and increase the force generated from the muscles around your hips.

RUNNING TECHNIQUE

The points addressed in the sections above that relate to generating force have disregarded the actual movements involved in running to some extent. S&C activities that directly improve the neuromuscular qualities important for running are probably the most valuable, and will give you the biggest ‘bang for your buck’. Even if your technique remains unchanged, you are still likely to enhance your performance and may even indirectly improve your style.

Very few endurance running coaches will pay close attention to a runner’s technique, considering it to be natural and a fixed part of an athlete’s make-up. To a degree, this is true. But running is like any other sport: a series of skills that need to be learnt or improved. Attempting to make subtle changes to your technique over time is beneficial for a number of reasons:

* | A poor running style places unnecessary stress on your joints. Correcting faulty running mechanics and compensations is likely to reduce the risk of injury
* | Although your default running technique is likely to be your most efficient, improving your style over a long period of time will waste less energy, and therefore enhance your running economy
* | Although strength-training techniques are likely to directly improve your performance, working on placing your limbs in the correct positions will allow you to utilize these qualities more effectively. Don’t allow poor running form to hold back your speed

*

Incorporating technical running drills into your training programme or as part of a warm-up acts as a form of conditioning in its own right. By focusing on a particular aspect of your running movement with a particular set of drills, specific muscles and structures around joints will be stressed more than usual, making them more resistant to injury. See Chapter 12 for descriptions of suitable running drills

Fig. 3.4: Phases and key technical markers of the running stride.

Although everybody runs slightly differently, the key markers of effective running technique that should be consistent in all runners are shown in Fig. 3.4. Although the phases of a running stride are broken down here for ease of understanding, it is difficult to examine skills in a discrete or isolated manner. It is important to realize that each movement you execute impacts upon the next, so an error in one phase will have knock-on consequences for other actions.

KEY INFORMATION

Every runner has a slightly different style but there are some important technical points you should try to achieve when running that will prevent you wasting energy and reduce stress on areas vulnerable to injury.

Early Swing (Recovery) Phase

This brief description of the running action begins at ‘toe off’, which is the moment your foot leaves the ground and starts its recovery. From this position, the initial action of your thigh being pulled forward is brought about by a set of muscles at the top of your thigh known as the hip flexors. These muscles tend to become very over-worked and tight in runners, which can often pull you into a poor posture. So as well as keeping these muscles strong and well conditioned, it is important that you regularly mobilize your hip in extended positions to prevent poor posture (see Chapter 13). Several of your hip flexor muscles attach to your spine, so many of the exercises that involve flexion at the hip in the trunk-training chapter (8) will strengthen these muscles.

Recovering your heel close to your buttocks is an efficient way to move, as the arc your heel travels through is much shorter, therefore creating a shorter lever and less distance to travel. However, a tight heel position is mainly the result of a reflexive action around your hip, as your hip flexors contract rapidly to pull your foot off the ground. This action is probably best described as a sling, where the speed of the knee moving forwards whips the heel tight to your body. So rather than actively attempting to pull your heel up using the hamstrings (and drills such as heel flicks), you should be focusing on effectively flexing at the hip to pull the thigh into a front position.

KEY INFORMATION

The muscles at the top of your thigh are responsible for flexing your hip as your foot leaves the ground. These tend to get overworked in runners, so make sure you stretch them regularly. Recovering your heel close to your buttock is important, but don’t attempt to bend your knee actively with drills like heel flicks.

The Importance of Posture

There are several technical markers associated with good posture, and these are indicated in Fig. 3.4. Although your legs perform the majority of work during running, your trunk and arms play an important role in making you move more efficiently.

Throughout the running cycle your torso should be held in an upright position, with the shoulders directly over the hips. As we are primarily concerned with generating force against the ground to overcome gravity, holding our torso in any other position does not allow force to transmit directly through our centre of mass to send us in a vertical direction. Holding yourself upright shouldn’t feel like hard work, because your mass acts directly through your base of support.

However, if you decide to lean forwards as you run, you place the muscles responsible for generating force in a much weaker position, and start directing your force in a more horizontal direction. This quickly becomes ineffective and less economical, and you also run the risk of injury by overworking muscles unnecessarily.

If you are particularly tight in the muscles around your hips (gluteals, hip flexors, hamstrings), you may not be capable of holding your torso in an effective upright position for extended periods, as the tightness in your hips will pull your pelvis out of its neutral position. Maintaining an adequate range of movement in all directions around the hips will prevent (and correct) these compensations, making your running more effective and offsetting the risk of injury.

Fig. 3.5: Good posture.

Fig. 3.6: Lumbar lordosis posture.

If you have good posture, it should feel comfortable to maintain a standing (and running) position with the shoulders directly over the hips, with a slight inward curvature of the lower back (lumbar) and a subtle flexed curvature of the thoracic spine (see Fig. 3.5). It is, however, quite common to observe poor postures within this upright position, which are adopted by many people: Figs 3.6 to 3.8 show the most common poor postures that are typically caused by the lazy positions that most of us adopt during everyday life, in sitting, lying and performing daily tasks. ‘Lumbar lordosis’ is caused when the pelvis tilts forwards, placing excessive and prolonged pressure on the lower back (see Fig. 3.6). It is usually caused by tight hip flexors, which attach to the lower part of the spine, so pulling the pelvis forwards. Overactive lower back muscles combined with weak abdominals can also be the cause.

Fig. 3.7: Thoracic kyphosis posture.

Fig. 3.7 shows a pronounced ‘thoracic kyphosis’, which makes some people look as if they have a slight hunchback. This posture tends to result from being in a forward slumped position for prolonged periods (as when sitting at a desk). In this posture, the thoracic region of the spine is held in a permanently flexed position, making it difficult to achieve a healthy extended position.

Fig. 3.8: Flat back posture.

When the pelvis is tilted backwards, the lower back appears to flatten and not follow its natural curve: it can then look like the posture shown in Fig. 3.8. This is simply known as a ‘flat back’ posture, and is often the result of excessively tight hamstrings and overactive abdominals.

It is not unusual to observe some of these postures together, as the spine compensates in both directions to balance the torso. The consequences of these poor postures during running may go unnoticed. They are, though, likely to affect the ability of your nervous system to contract and relax muscles appropriately, also your breathing and blood supply may be compromised. Quite often a strained or excessively tight muscle in the leg can be traced back to an unhealthy posture. A simple observation or movement screen will reveal whether you are adopting any of these poor postural positions whilst running. Resistance training exercises (see Chapter 6), and a regular routine of stretching for muscles around the hips (see Chapter 13), are likely to improve your posture.

KEY INFORMATION

Many injuries can often be traced back to a poor posture. Incorrect positioning of the pelvis and spine is usually the result of long periods of sitting that cause excessive tightness and weakness in the muscles responsible for holding you in a good posture. Resistance training and mobility exercises can help you overcome a poor posture.

A small amount of rotation through the trunk is necessary to counteract the wide ranges of motion that are occurring in the lower body, but in the main, the spinal position should remain relatively fixed. In particular, movement around the lower back should be minimized as much as possible. As will be discussed in Chapter 8 on trunk training, the musculature around the lower back and abdominals primarily serves to transmit force through the mid-section of the body and protect the structures of the lumbar spine. Excessive twisting and bending through the trunk whilst running is inefficient, and is likely to result in lower back pain or an injury elsewhere as a consequence.

That said, the importance of having strong trunk musculature, the function of which is to hold (not move) the spine in the correct position, is crucial. The trunk muscles should therefore be conditioned primarily to resist movement of the pelvis in directions that will compromise running, and to hold the pelvis in position during running.

Although your arm action may seem like an insignificant element of the running action, it plays an important role in linking the body together as one integrated unit. If you watch world-class runners in a marathon, their legs are working overtime to maintain a speed in excess of 20km/h. However, if you watch their upper body only, they give the impression they are out for a casual jog!

The key to an effective arm action is relaxation. Arm swing should occur loosely from the shoulders with the shoulder blades set back in a neutral position, and no hunching or rotation around the chest. The upper back (trapezius) muscles and neck should be completely relaxed. The elbows should be bent at approximately 90 degrees and remain tucked tightly to the torso, so arm swing is directed forwards and backwards. Moving your arms should feel quite natural as they reciprocate and balance the rotational forces being created by the lower body.

As running speed increases, a state of relaxation in the shoulders should be maintained, but the range of movement should increase to counteract the wider range your legs are moving through. This ensures that the energy that is transferred from the ground, through the stiff linkage the trunk provides, is used effectively rather than other muscles having to work hard to absorb the force.

Late Swing (Recovery) Phase

A key marker for both performance and injury prevention is that the hip of the swing leg should be positioned higher than the stance leg as the thigh finishes its swing into a front position (see Fig. 3.9). Achieving this position indicates that a set of key stabilizing muscles located around the hip (gluteals) are functioning well on the stance leg. In addition, being able to hold this high hip position will mean that you haven’t sat too low at the knee and the ankle on the stance leg, so are likely to use the stretch-shortening cycle more effectively.

Hip position on the swing leg during the stance phase. The lower hip position shown in Figs 3.10 and 3.11 is ineffective, causing ankle–knee–hip misalignment and risking injury to the knee in particular.

If these stabilizing muscles in your hip are weak, or activate slowly during ground contact, your stance position may be similar to the runner shown in Figs 3.10 and 3.11. Here the free hip sits lower than the support leg hip, causing the knee to lose alignment relative to the foot and hip. Many running injures can be traced back to weakness in these key stabilizing muscles around the hips, as stress shifts to other joints if the muscles don’t do their job properly. Including exercises to strengthen the gluteal stabilizers (see Chapter 11) is likely to improve your chance of hitting this important position, and to ensure that you don’t compromise your ability to run at fast speeds. To avoid any lateral flexion around the spine that this pelvic position creates, muscles involved with laterally flexing the trunk must also be especially well conditioned (see Chapter 8).

For the distance runner, it is unwise to try to focus on running with ‘high knees’. Although the hip flexors work hard initially to remove the foot from the ground and pull the thigh through, the height your thigh reaches will mainly depend upon your running speed. Efforts to pull your leg excessively high will simply lengthen the recovery of your leg and delay your foot reaching the ground, where it can actually do something productive!

When running at high speeds, this last part of the leg swing places considerable stress on the hamstrings. When sprinting especially, this is a key part of the running cycle. With the foot following the knee through rapidly, it is then required to change direction to travel vertically downwards towards the ground. The hamstring therefore resists eccentric forces to slow the forward momentum of the lower leg, and this places high amounts of stress on the muscle and therefore presents a high potential for injury. For endurance runners this is not a major concern, as the thigh recovers at a slower velocity compared to sprinting, so the hamstrings are stressed to a much lesser extent. For middle-distance runners however, and any athletes who may include high speed running in their training programme, it is absolutely vital to strengthen the hamstrings to prevent injury.

As the foot completes its swing through, the ankle should be prepared for contacting the ground by being cocked tight to the shin. When you practise this for the first time, it may feel awkward or unnatural, which is why it forms a main coaching point of many of the running drills and plyometric exercises recommended in Chapters 7 and 12. Contracting the muscles at the front of your shin in this manner stretches the muscles in your calf, so as your foot strikes the ground it carries a high level of pre-tension. This enables the ankle to stabilize much more quickly, to allow the Achilles tendon to store energy.

KEY INFORMATION

As your leg swings through, it is important that your gluteal muscles are strong enough to hold your hip on your swing leg slightly higher than your stance leg hip. This will prevent your knee collapsing and allow you to use your stretch-shortening cycle effectively. Also, cock your toes tight to your shin as your foot recovers, so it has some tension before it strikes the ground.

From a position with the thigh at its highest natural point, the foot should drop down and backwards so it lands under (or slightly in front of) the hips. At slow running speeds, this movement tends to be very passive to save energy. As running speed increases, this becomes a more active movement, so the posterior chain muscles (gluteals and hamstrings) become involved in pulling the leg down towards the ground at speed.

Importantly here, no attempt should be made to reach or ‘paw’ for the ground. Attempting to actively lengthen the stride in this manner will result in the foot striking the ground in front of the body, which creates large braking forces that subsequently you need to overcome.

Forefoot versus Heel Strike

Fig. 3.12: Heel strike.

Fig. 3.13: Flat foot strike.

Fig. 3.14: Forefoot strike.

Contrary to what many think, the part of the foot you land on is not of huge importance, and is mainly a function of the speed you are running at. Having said that, an action where the heel strikes in front of the body (see Fig. 3.12) should be avoided, as it dramatically increases braking forces that momentarily slow you down. Heel striking also tends to place huge stress on the knee, and runners who exhibit a heel strike action tend to have a high incidence of knee-related injuries. Landing with the foot relatively flat (see Fig. 3.13) or on your forefoot (see Fig. 3.14) minimizes braking forces and positions the ankle underneath the body. This means you are in a strong position to take full advantage of the stretch-shortening cycle.

As running speed increases, the time you spend with your foot in contact with the ground decreases, which makes it difficult to hit the ground in any way except with the forefoot. If you are a middle distance (800–3,000m) runner or have aspirations to compete at an international standard, it is very unlikely you will be successful without adopting a forefoot ground strike. You won’t see many élite runners on television with a heel-striking running style! As energy demand cannot be met aerobically at these higher speeds of running, relying on the effective storage and release of elastic energy from your Achilles tendon becomes more crucial. A forefoot landing allows the Achilles tendon to function optimally and therefore maximizes the contribution from this mechanism.

If, however, you are new to running or tend to run at a slow speed, it would be foolish to dedicate large portions of training time to developing a forefoot-striking pattern, especially if you are already a natural mid-foot striker. Nevertheless, this isn’t to say that using some running drills that encourage a forefoot strike isn’t useful for all runners, as they place stress around the foot and ankle, and so act as specific conditioning drills for this region of the body.

KEY INFORMATION

Whether you strike the ground with your heel, mid-foot or forefoot isn’t of huge importance. However, if you heel strike in front of your body this will cause high braking forces and stress to the knee. Forefoot striking is a characteristic of fast running as it enables you to use elastic energy more effectively therefore saving you energy.

Stance Phase

Many of the important features of this phase of the running cycle have already been addressed in the force production and muscular contraction sections. If you are able to hit the body positions described for the recovery phase of your running cycle, your stance phase should feel much more effective.

As mentioned, foot strike should occur with the ankle in a neutral position and on the outside edge of the foot (known as supination). Quite rapidly after initial ground contact, though, you will roll quite naturally into a mid-foot position (called ‘pronation’), so avoid focusing on this aspect of foot placement. This roll into a more pronated position of the foot during stance provides a mechanism for shock absorption and allows you to respond better to an uneven terrain.

The foot should strike slightly in front of the hips, and depending upon the speed you are running at, contact should be mid-foot or forefoot (see Figs 3.13 and 3.14). Initially the muscles around the ankle and knee will contract eccentrically to control the forces on landing. As discussed in the force application section, stronger muscles around the knee and ankle allow the Achilles tendon to stretch over a larger range and therefore store more elastic energy. The quicker an isometric state of contraction can be reached in these muscles, the more effectively they will provide the anchor that the Achilles needs in order to work effectively.

A great deal of energy is often wasted in excessive ‘bobbing’ or vertical movement of the centre of mass. If your knee flexes too much, or you sit too deeply during your stance phase, time on the ground becomes long and more muscular work is required to push you out of this position. It is therefore advantageous to have strong muscles around the knee in particular (hamstring and quadriceps) to prevent collapse and to maintain a high hip position.

Although an increase in running speed brings with it a reduction in ground contact time, it is unproductive to attempt to pull your foot off the ground quickly in an attempt to run faster. This will simply result in a poor use of the stretch-shortening cycle because the Achilles isn’t allowed to stretch far enough. Shorter ground contact times that come with faster running speeds are the result of a higher and more rapid application of force to overcome gravity, in conjunction with an improved ability to store and return elastic energy.

A crucial technical marker, which can be best seen from the front or rear view of a runner, is the ankle–knee–hip alignment (see Fig. 3.9). This technical point is especially important in that a misalignment of these joints is a primary cause of knee pain in runners. There are a number of potential reasons why a runner’s knee may collapse inwards during their stance phase, the most likely one of which was discussed in the previous section relating to strength of the hip stabilizing muscles. If the gluteals are not strong enough to deal with the force experienced at ground contact, or activation is slightly delayed, the stance leg hip will shift sideways and the knee will drop inwards to compensate (see Figs 3.10 and 3.11).

Another mechanism for poor alignment relates to the extent of pronation a runner moves through as their foot rolls inwards after initial ground contact. If pronation is excessive this rotates the shin bone (tibia) to a greater extent, which also pulls the knee inwards. Both of these mechanisms are likely to contribute to the high incidence of knee problems seen in distance runners.

During the late part of the stance phase, the energy that has been stored in the Achilles tendon is released, and contributes significantly towards propelling you forwards. The hip extensors (gluteals and hamstrings) also play a key role in generating force concentrically here, and contract explosively. It is important during this last part of stance that you are not attempting to push off behind you. Over-extending at the hip in this manner is detrimental for two primary reasons. Firstly, the posterior chain muscles are capable of producing very high forces whilst the foot is positioned directly under the body, but as you move over your foot and the muscles shorten, they become less capable of generating force and switch off naturally. This is why the leg never fully straightens before it leaves the ground: we are too weak to produce any meaningful force in this region. Secondly, the further we extend our leg behind our body, the more our pelvis is pulled into a forward-tilted position. As you might recall from the previous section discussing the importance of posture, this is a weak position for the hip flexors to work in, and a vulnerable position in which to repeatedly place the lower back.

KEY INFORMATION

As your foot strikes the ground it will roll inwards (pronate) to reduce the force of impact. Ensuring you have sufficient movement at your ankle to allow for this movement is important. During the stance phase it is crucial that the muscles around your knees and hips are strong enough to hold your hips high and prevent your knee from collapsing.

Implications for Strength and Conditioning

Technical Marker | S&C Focus
Early swing (recovery)
Hip flexors contract to pull thigh through | Hip flexor exercises and ‘A-drills’ Mobility/stretching to prevent tightness
Torso upright | Overhead running drills and exercises
Minimal rotation through trunk | Anti-rotation trunk exercises
Extended chest (prevent kyphosis) | Overhead strength-training exercises Thoracic mobility exercises
Neutral lower back (prevent lordosis or flat back position) | Postural strength-training exercises Trunk training Mobility/stretching for hips
Late swing (recovery)

Hip of swing leg higher than stance side

Gluteal strength training
Hopping and bounding exercises
Running ‘A-drills’
Anti-lateral flexion trunk exercises

Toes tight to shin as leg drops | Running drills
Control of lower leg swing (fast running) | Hamstring conditioning High speed running
Relaxed arm swing from shoulders | Upper body strength training
Stance
Foot strike slightly ahead of body | Running ‘B-drills’ Barefoot conditioning drills
High hip position (minimal sink) | Plyometric exercises Running ‘A-drills’
Ankle–knee–hip alignment | Gluteal stability Unilateral lower limb strength training Hopping and bounding exercises
Utilize stretch shortening cycle | Calf conditioning Plyometric training
Explosive hip extension | Lower limb strength training Explosive strength training
Lower back held neutral | Trunk training (abdominals)

Table 3b: Key technical markers of the running stride and the implications for S&C.

You might think that the quickest way to improve your running technique is to practise high volumes of running drills that emphasize elements of your style that need work. Technical running drills should certainly form an integral part of a runner’s S&C programme (see Chapter 12), but based upon the information presented in this chapter, it should hopefully be obvious that there are other important training techniques you also need to consider. Table 3b identifies the S&C activities that are most likely to improve the qualities and movement skills that underpin an efficient running style.

COMMON INJURIES

One issue that almost all endurance runners share is that at some point in their career they have suffered an injury. Research data indicates that overuse injuries in the sport of endurance running are high, ranging from 20 per cent of runners surveyed, up to 80 per cent in some reports. Typically, around 25 per cent of serious runners are sidelined with an injury at any given time, and about half of runners experience at least one injury which keeps them out of training each year. The high prevalence of injury in running as compared to other endurance sports such as rowing and cycling is in part due to the high volume of heavy impacts (2–3 × bodyweight) that the joints of the lower limb experience.

Fig. 3.15: Most common sites of injury in endurance runners.

The sites of injury typically experienced by endurance runners are shown in Fig. 3.15, and not surprisingly almost all are of the chronic overuse-type of injury to the lower limb. To some extent, information like this isn’t particularly helpful as it doesn’t necessarily suggest that there is a 24 per cent risk that if you get injured, it will be a knee injury for example. Nevertheless it is partly helpful in establishing which areas of the body perhaps require screening to assess how well movement is controlled around that area, and how well it can stand up to repeated cycles of loading.

There have been dozens of attempts by researchers to try and understand the common mechanisms that result in these running injuries, but much is still not understood about why specific injuries occur. In most runners, the reason for picking up an injury isn’t because the area was tight or weak, but because they were exhibiting signs of dysfunction elsewhere in the body, which ultimately placed excessive stress on the area that got injured. It is therefore tricky to generalize what needs to be done to prevent and rehabilitate specific injuries. Broadly speaking, though, a number of common risk factors have been identified that tend to predict injury in a runner. These factors include:

* | Previous injury
* | Increasing training volume and/or intensity too quickly
* | Wearing incorrect footwear
* | Running on excessively hard or soft surfaces
* | Muscular imbalances
* | Poor movement control and running technique
* | Restricted range of movement at key joints
* | Lack of strength and resilience to repetitive loading in some tissues

Each of the risk factors listed here have lengthy biomechanical explanations behind them, which explain why they predict injury. Luckily the majority is controllable to some extent, so injury is not inevitable. Although the previous injuries you may have suffered from can’t be changed, it is likely that you will have altered the way you move slightly to compensate for the pain you were originally experiencing. Changing your movement and running style will place excessive stress on joints in a way you previously didn’t, ultimately causing a different injury. Equally, if an original injury is rehabilitated but you haven’t corrected the issue that was originally causing the injury, it is likely the injury will return at some point.

Minimizing your Injury Risk

As the underlying causes of running injuries are so complex and individual, it is important that if you are unfortunate enough to sustain an injury, you undergo a thorough history and screening examination with a physiotherapist. This screening should address all of the training, biomechanical and structural factors that may be contributing towards the injury.

From an S&C perspective, based upon the information contained in Fig. 3.15 and the description of optimal running technique described in this chapter, there are a number of important movements and qualities that can be screened as part of an assessment. Although achieving excellent scores in these tests is unlikely to completely eliminate injury risk, assessing fundamental movement patterns, determining where muscular imbalances exist, and evaluating strength and load tolerance at key sites for injury, are useful start points in determining whether you are likely to pick up an injury.

In addition to helping inform the content of an initial screening session, the list of risk factors for injury can be also be used to create a set of general suggestions that will help in preventing injury.

Progress your weekly mileage and intensity slowly

One of the most common causes of injury is making a big jump in your weekly training volume, or introducing more fast running than you are accustomed to. As a general rule, avoid increasing your volume of running by more than 10 per cent each week.

Maximize rest and recovery

It is important to remember that your training sessions only provide the stimulus to bring about an improvement. The actual improvement is made whilst you allow your body to recover and adapt to the stress you’ve placed upon it. If your recovery time is too short or not sufficiently restful enough, your muscles and tissues are likely to still be fatigued and damaged from your last training session. Ensure you get at least eight hours sleep per night and that you allow yourself time to relax between training sessions wherever possible.

Eat well

An often neglected element of a runner’s programme is a healthy diet, which is odd, given that it involves no sweat, effort or hard work! Following a training session there will be a small amount of micro-damage in almost all the joints and muscles that were involved in the session. Depending upon the severity of the damage, sometimes these areas feel sore and achy the next day, but it doesn’t stop you from training. Both before and immediately after a training session, a healthy balanced meal which is high in protein, vitamins and minerals in particular, will kick start your recovery process post-session, and ensure that the tissues you have damaged heal quickly. By eating poor quality food or timing your meals incorrectly, you run the risk of the damage not repairing itself quickly enough, which increases the risk of injury.

Improve the quality of your movement

One of the most important goals of an S&C programme is to improve the way you move. By this, I don’t mean simply trying to improve your running style, but also working on how you execute more simple fundamental movements that underpin how you run. If you teach your nervous system how to co-ordinate your limbs correctly during a squat, a lunge, a step-up and a hop for example, many of these improvements will transfer across to your running style. The more control you have over your movement in simple tasks, the more likely you will feel in control of your running action.

Rectify muscular imbalances

Strength and flexibility discrepancies between right and left exist in most runners, and to some extent are quite normal. However, when an imbalance (or asymmetry) alters the way you move, you will begin overloading specific joints excessively. Ironing out movement control issues between sides should therefore always be a priority. Similarly, many runners have an imbalance between opposing pairs of muscles, or an over-reliance on one muscle group to perform a movement. A few of these typical imbalances were highlighted in this chapter, such as a quadricep dominance during push-off due to weak gluteal muscles, and under-involvement of the hamstrings during stabilization of the knee on landing.

Improve your posture

As addressed in the previous section, poor postures are often the result of muscular imbalance and movement restrictions in specific joints. Incorrect spine and pelvis positions place excessive strain on other structures around the trunk, and can lead to poor co-ordination when muscles produce explosive movement. Regular strength-training exercises that emphasize a good back position, and stretching overactive muscles, will both aid in improving your posture – but it is also something you can be thinking about all the time!

Stretch and foam roll regularly

An important start point in preventing injury is to ensure that your joints are able to move through a normal range in an unrestricted manner. Excessive tightness around the thoracic spine, hips and ankles in particular will increase your risk of injury. Chapter 13 provides detail on the stretches and foam-rolling exercises that you can include in your daily routine to improve your mobility and flexibility.

Design a more effective warm-up and cool-down routine

Most runners accept that the warm-up and cool-down period of a session are important, but is this time always used wisely? Incorporating a 5–10min period at the start and end of every run, which includes a series of simple S&C exercises designed to correct posture, mobilize joints and activate key muscles, is an excellent way to offset the risk of injury in the long term. The way to structure a warm-up and select the most appropriate exercises is addressed in Chapter 14.

Regularly vary the surface and terrain you run on

You may have heard that running on very soft ground, like a beach, is best for your joints and that running on roads is bad. The problem with very soft terrain, such as sand, is that your muscles and Achilles tendon have to work overtime to provide sufficient stability and stiffness to store and return elastic energy effectively. This actually places a high degree of stress on your lower leg which conversely increases the risk of injury. At the other end of the spectrum, concrete provides a very stable surface to run on, so your muscles and tendons don’t need to work hard to stiffen on landing, because the surface does it for you. The problem with hard surfaces, though, is that all impact forces are directed through your body so the external stress is still very high. Woodland paths or soft grass offer a compromise, so both are ideal to carry out the majority of your running. However, mixing things up regularly and varying your running surfaces also makes your joints more robust to injury.

Increase your strength and resilience of connective tissue

Strength training will benefit your performance and lower your risk of injury in numerous ways. Improving the control and co-ordination of your limbs using strength-training techniques, and enhancing the integrity of bones and connective tissue that are susceptible to high-volume stress caused through running, is certain to reduce the risk of injury.

KEY INFORMATION

At some point in your running career you have probably suffered an injury. This isn’t uncommon in endurance running. If you suffer an injury, seek advice from a physiotherapist and implement a programme of rehabilitation. To minimize injury risk in the future there are a number of actions you should take, including: improving your movement, rectifying imbalances, correcting posture, mobilizing joints and getting stronger.

CHAPTER 4: ASSESSING STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES

The start point of any S&C programme is to determine your strengths and weaknesses, so a training programme is tailored towards your individual requirements. Having identified the key physical qualities that underpin endurance running performance, and areas of the body at risk of injury, this chapter aims to present a battery of suitable assessments that reflect these demands, so you can determine where the emphasis of your S&C activities should be placed.

Ideally, decisions on the most appropriate S&C activities to use should be made in conjunction with your technical coach, a physiotherapist and perhaps if you are an élite athlete, a physiologist. Your technical coach may have some useful insights into how they think your time could best be spent during non-running training, and a physiotherapist can provide a more detailed analysis of any specific imbalances, restrictions and dys-functions you may have.

THE PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT

There are a number of reasons why it is important to carry out assessments of physical competence.

To identify strengths and weaknesses: Although it is likely that there will be overlap between the exercises that every runner performs in their S&C programme, it is important that the relative emphasis is tailored towards your needs. Assessment results will reveal weaknesses in your physical profile, which may predispose you to injury or limit your performance.

To provide a baseline measure for monitoring: Initial testing will provide a picture of where the focus of a programme needs to be placed. Beyond this, some coaches will choose to monitor how performance changes through training records and regular observation rather than formally reassessing. The decision to reassess following a training intervention is mainly dependent upon the nature of the test and to some extent the issue identified. For movement screening, it is perhaps unnecessary to reassess. This is because these exercises (or similar) are likely to be performed, and attempts made to correct faulty technique, in almost every session. For performance and strength-based assessments, it may however be useful to retest periodically, so you can be sure that the programme of exercises you have been following has achieved the desired result. Recommendations on how frequently to reassess are provided in Table 4a.

To enhance motivation: A good reason for conducting assessments at regular intervals is that it is likely to provide a boost to your motivation if goals are achieved and scores steadily progress over time. Seeing assessment results improve should also give you the confidence that you can handle increases in training volume and intensity without suffering an injury.

To provide a basis for training prescription: The results of assessments not only identify the priorities for a training programme, but can also provide the basis for training prescription. The most common example of this is for strength tests, where the maximum weight an athlete can lift is recorded, and subsequent training loads calculated for this exercise based upon a percentage of the weight lifted. The same principle can be applied to assessments that are more common for endurance runners. For example, if an athlete can hold a side plank for 75sec, a trunk training programme that includes side plank holds for multiple sets of 60sec is a realistic target.

To enhance understanding about important physical capabilities: For many runners who have little or no experience of S&C activities, performing tests such as those recommended later in this chapter will be the first exposure to basic bodyweight exercises. Understanding how a complex, high velocity movement pattern such as running can be broken down into more simple movement skills is helpful in understanding why you have sustained certain injuries or run with an unusual style. Similarly, testing strength and the endurance of specific muscles can educate runners about the key muscle groups and the movement patterns in which they need to be become stronger. If nothing else, simply practising these assessments regularly is likely to be beneficial to running performance, and to reduce the risk of injury.

The identification of talent: Individuals take up endurance running for a number of different reasons. For the recreational runner it will often be for health reasons, a new challenge, or to raise money for charity. However, young athletes will usually take up the sport because they have displayed a talent for distance running as compared to the rest of their peer group. For young athletes in particular, assessment results will often reflect the areas of physical fitness in which they are genetically gifted. This may help coaches identify more specifically which distances an athlete may excel at in the future, and provides a rationale for focusing attention on the qualities needed for success.

Getting Accurate Results

There are potentially dozens of different assessments that you could select to measure various physical qualities associated with endurance running. The selection of the most appropriate assessment will depend upon a number of different factors, which all relate to how valid and reliable the assessment is.

KEY INFORMATION

The information you gain from assessments forms the basis for the decisions you make about your training. Assessments are also important to enhance your motivation, enable you to monitor improvements and help you understand more about S&C.

Validity

‘Validity’ refers to whether an assessment measures what it is supposed to measure. In other words, assessments must be selected that accurately reflect the physical quality that needs to be measured. Given the constraints imposed by facility and equipment availability, validity is often difficult to maximize in an S&C setting. Selecting assessments that correspond as closely as possible to the construct they are designed to measure is crucial.

Often athletes and technical coaches will observe that assessments don’t carry a high ‘face validity’, meaning that they don’t resemble a movement pattern or quality from endurance running which they can relate to. It is therefore important to recognize that although some assessments don’t necessarily mimic a part of the running action, they are designed to measure an important physical quality or capacity that underpins performance or injury risk. Given the qualities that were highlighted as being important for an endurance runner in Chapters 2 and 3, Table 4a provides a list of suitable assessments that evaluate important physical capabilities.

Reliability

‘Reliability’ refers to how consistent or repeatable an assessment is. If an assessment is too complicated or cannot be repeated without significant fluctuations in results, it will not generate scores that accurately represent the quality being measured. For this reason, it is important to select assessments that are simple to carry out, and require little practice before a consistent technique or score is produced.

KEY INFORMATION

Any assessments you use should be ‘valid’, which means they must accurately measure an aspect of your fitness that is important for running performance or predicts your injury risk. If you don’t have access to specialist equipment and facilities, assessments also need to be ‘reliable’. They need to be simple and safe, and require minimal equipment to administer.

For the assessments identified in Table 4a, one reason why some are unsuitable for runners new to S&C is that the movement patterns require a high degree of skill, which must first be developed over a number of weeks before they can accurately be used as an exercise to assess a specific physical quality. An important feature of a reliable assessment is that anyone can administer and score the test without measurement error. Sources of error include different interpretations of test procedure (including technique), strictness on execution, variations in warm-up protocol, inaccurate measurement tools and varying levels of verbal encouragement. For these reasons, some assessments cannot be carried out without a qualified coach and specialized equipment (such as jump mats, force plates and gas analysis equipment). Assessments must be selected that are simple, safe, straightforward to administer, and require minimal equipment and personnel. The assessments presented in this chapter are designed to reflect this, and can therefore be conducted safely and effectively without the need for expensive equipment or facilities.

RULES FOR ASSESSMENT

To maximize the validity and reliability of the assessments described in this chapter, there are several important features of an assessment battery that you need to ensure you fulfil:

Safety:

* | Exclude any assessments that cause stress to an area of the body where you have recently sustained an injury
* | Terminate any assessments if you feel pain
* | Avoid the maximum strength tests if you are new to S&C or suffer from a cardiovascular related health condition

Preparation:

* | Ensure you are relatively well rested before performing any assessments. For most people, this will probably mean not having completed a hard running session in the forty-eight hours prior to the tests
* | As with your running training, avoid eating anything two to three hours before assessments, and wear clothing that is comfortable and loose. Some tests require you to be barefoot, others that you wear running trainers, so have them to hand
* | Always perform the tests following a standardized warm-up (see Chapter 14)

*

In an ideal world, the assessments – and particularly movement screening – would be conducted by a qualified S&C coach and physiotherapist. However, this is not possible for most runners, therefore the assessment protocols are designed to be simple and easy to administer alone. Ensure you are familiar with the procedures for each assessment before starting

Administration of Assessments

When completing the assessments without the presence of a coach, it is imperative that the assessment protocol indicated is carefully followed. Scores should be determined, or the test terminated, based upon the strict execution of (or deviation from) the technique described.

Order of Assessments

The assessments listed in Table 4a are ordered in the sequence in which they should be carried out. Essentially, unfatiguing movement patterns should be assessed first, followed by any tests of explosive power and strength, with muscular capacity tests completed last. If a running-based test in a laboratory or around a timed circuit is included, ideally this should be performed on a separate day. Nevertheless, always avoid performing muscular capacity tests before any of the others listed.

Comparison Against Others

Although results from your training and races provide you with direct feedback on how you are performing against others, making direct comparisons in an S&C setting is more difficult. Ideally, a large bank of data would be available for various populations of runners against whom you could compare yourself, but unfortunately this doesn’t yet exist. Based upon the data of many runners of various ages and abilities who have been tested over the years, the standards provided for each assessment act as a useful guide.

KEY INFORMATION

Ensure you follow these rules when being assessed to ensure you gain accurate results. Avoid any assessments that cause pain or discomfort to a recently injured area. Perform assessments following a couple of days of light training and a thorough warm-up. Follow the instructions for each assessment carefully and complete them in the order listed.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT

Fig. 4.1: Different categories of S&C assessment.

There are generally four categories of assessment from which an S&C coach can select tests in order to determine physical competence and readiness to perform certain types of exercise. These are shown in Figure 4.1. Movement screening is the most common form of assessment across any sport. A movement screen involves assessing simple patterns of movement that underpin more complex skills seen in sport and everyday life. There are several well validated and popular movement screens available to use, and the screen suggested in this chapter is an amalgamation of these.

Performance tests are the most specific and externally valid set of assessments. For an endurance runner, this might involve performing a 5km time trial (or similar distance) once or twice per year to assess progress. Over- and under-distance time trials can also be used to assess more endurance-and speed-related qualities respectively. More scientifically, élite runners will often visit a physiology laboratory regularly to have their oxygen uptake, heart rate and blood lactate production checked at a range of submaximal running speeds. These types of assessment carry a high external validity so therefore provide a very accurate indicator of how you will perform in a race compared to others, and previous performances.

Strength diagnostics assess your force-producing capabilities. As an endurance runner, you may not have incorporated much resistance training and plyometrics into your training regimen in the past. If this is the case, performing these assessments is a waste of time and potentially carries a high risk of injury. If you are inexperienced at resistance training, you do not need to perform a test to confirm that you lack strength! Equally, there is little point in assessing your plyometric qualities if you have not performed these activities as part of your training in the past.

Assessments of local muscular endurance, known as ‘capacity tests’, have become common amongst several successful organizations in the UK over the last decade. The assessments involve very little skill and can be performed with minimal equipment, so are suitable for virtually any type of runner. For endurance performers, scores on capacity tests appear to be able to predict injury risk quite accurately. This suggests that possessing adequate capacity in the tissues around sites vulnerable to injury is an important physical quality to develop.

Table 4a: Assessment battery to test the key physical qualities required for endurance running and areas susceptible to injury.

Assessment Battery for Runners New to Strength and Conditioning

It is unlikely that the majority of runners will have access to a physiology laboratory, speed gates and a jump mat. Therefore the focus of this section will be around movement screen assessments and capacity tests, which should be used by all runners to inform their S&C training prescription.

A table to record your scores has been included later in this chapter. Note your observations and scores for the movement screen, capacity tests, vertical jump and single leg hop tests. If you have experience in strength training and have access to the equipment, space is also included to record your one repetition maximum (1RM) and speed testing results.

KEY INFORMATION

All runners with minimal equipment can perform movement screening, basic jump tests and capacity testing. Movement screening assesses how well you can execute basic fundamental exercises with bodyweight. Jump tests indirectly measure your explosive strength and capacity tests assess specific muscular endurance in areas vulnerable to injury.

MOVEMENT SCREENING ASSESSMENTS

The aim of this first set of assessments is to identify how well you can execute a set of basic and fundamental movement patterns. Often referred to as the ‘pillars’ of human movement, these exercises are basic skills that underpin almost every movement we need to use in life and sport, not least running.

Generally speaking, individuals who score poorly on these simple tests are unlikely to move well during more complex movement skills such as running. As a result, there is some evidence that if you cannot perform these basic assessments to a satisfactory level, your risk of injury is likely to be higher. That said, there are of course plenty of runners who move very poorly in these simple movement assessments, but never seem to get injured; so if you are struggling with these exercises, there is no need to panic! However, by establishing where the movement is breaking down, practising the exercises regularly and with the help of an S&C coach and physiotherapist, unpicking which joints and muscles are tight or dysfunctional, you will improve your ability to move freely and efficiently. This is therefore likely to reduce your risk of getting injured.

Why is your Movement Breaking Down?

If it is the first time you have performed these types of exercise, it is unrealistic to expect a perfect movement score straight away. Follow the instructions for each assessment and ask a partner to give you a tick or cross for each of the technical criteria in the scoring grid. For each assessment described in this chapter, the main reasons for being unable to achieve the technical markers are addressed, and solutions offered to overcome deficiencies in movement. Generally speaking, the reason you cannot hit every technical marker on the checklist will be due to one or more of the following issues.

Lack of range of movement (mobility): If a joint is unable to move through a normal range during a basic movement assessment, you will find that you are restricted in depth or you perform an incorrect movement pattern to compensate.

Inability to control uninvolved joints (stability): The ability of muscles to contract in a timely and appropriate fashion to fixate unwanted movement is known as ‘stability’. If a muscle is weak or its timing is off when it is required to control an area of the body, it will often result in poor movement.

Poor skill (motor control): Every movement you perform is a co-ordinated skill that the nervous system will recognize to varying extents. Some skills will feel highly familiar and others will feel awkward and difficult to execute. The ability to perform a skill smoothly and efficiently using the appropriate muscles to develop force requires extensive practice. Poor movement is therefore often caused by a lack of co-ordination in the nervous system, which results in muscles not relaxing and contracting at appropriate times to allow the desired movement.

Overhead Squat

Assesses:

* | Mobility of thoracic spine, hips and ankles
* | Skill and control during a bilateral squat pattern

Procedure:

Fig. 4.2(i): Set-up of the overhead squat.

Fig. 4.2(ii): Start position of the overhead squat.

Fig. 4.2(iii): Bottom position of the overhead squat (side view).

Fig. 4.2(iv): Bottom position of the overhead squat (front view).

See Figs 4.2(i) to 4.2(iv).

* | Grip a broomstick with your arms sufficiently wide so that when it rests on the crown of your head your elbows are at right angles
* | Straighten your arms so the broomstick is directly overhead
* | Position the feet slightly wider than hip width and turn the toes slightly outwards
* | Descend into a squat by pushing the hips backwards and sitting through the heels
* | Push the knees outwards in line with the toes. Trying to pull the feet apart might help
* | The back should remain in a neutral position with the chest and the head up
* | Descend until the thighs break parallel to the ground or until you cannot maintain a neutral back position
* | Stand up by driving through the heels and leading with the chest
* | Complete six repetitions

Scoring:

Do you observe the following when you perform the overhead squat:

From the side:

Is the broomstick over the crown of the head?

Is the lower back neutral?

Have the thighs broken parallel to the ground?

Are the heels on the ground?

From the front:

Is there alignment between the ankle–knee–hip on both sides?

Typical Errors and Corrections

Broomstick not over the crown of the head

Fig. 4.2(v): Overhead squat chest collapse error.

Otherwise known as ‘chest collapse’: see Fig. 4.2(v). This is typically observed in individuals with excessive kyphosis who lack strength and mobility through the thoracic region in their spine.

Performing a regular routine of thoracic mobilization exercises (see Chapter 13) during the warm-up and after training runs should, over time, help alleviate this issue.

When you progress to the back squat, attempt to bend the barbell across your back, which will help to keep your chest up and shoulder blades squeezed together.

Lower back flexes

Fig. 4.2(vi): Overhead squat lower back flexion error.

Otherwise known as ‘butt wink’: see Fig. 4.2(vi). This is the most common issue that individuals face when squatting, and is of particular concern as it pulls the lumbar region of the spine into flexion. Over time this is likely to cause injury to the lower back. It is usually caused by a lack of mobility around the hips and poor strength of the lower back extensor muscles.

Incorporating regular stretching and foam roller work (see Chapter 14) for the deep gluteal rotator muscles in the hips, as well as practising static squat positions (for example, goblet squat), is likely to improve the range you can achieve through your hips.

During the movement, focus on pushing the ground apart and squeezing your knees out to a greater extent as you reach the bottom position. This will facilitate a greater amount of external rotation and adduction at the hip, which reduces the need to achieve more flexion at the hip.

Thighs don’t break parallel

Fig. 4.2(vii): Overhead squat lacking depth error.

The exercise lacks depth: see Fig. 4.2(vii). This is a common issue for novice squatters, but in those who have adequate mobility, it is usually a simple case of becoming more skilled at the exercise. Focus on sitting back as you start the movement, but don’t be afraid of pushing your knees forwards (over your toes) to use your ankle range. Place a low box or chair behind you as a target to touch, and get practising!

As you lower into a squat position you will automatically halt your descent if your ankles and/or hips reach the limit of their range of movement. Therefore if you are excessively tight in your calves or around your hips, you will reach the end range at these joints long before your thighs are parallel with the ground. If you feel tightness in your calves, which is very common in runners, it would be advisable to stretch these muscles regularly.

Within a session, and as a temporary measure, place a thin plate or book under each heel to facilitate range at the ankles. Equally, if you feel your lower back rounding because you are ‘butt winking’ (see previous error), then also mobilize your hips.

Ankle–knee–hip misalignment

Fig. 4.2(viii): Overhead squat ankle–knee–hip misalignment error.

Otherwise known as ‘knee valgus’: see Fig. 4.2(viii). If your knees collapse inwards during the descent instead of staying in line with your toes, this is known as a knee valgus position, which carries a high risk of injury to the ligaments in and around the knee. It is often seen in both the downward and upward phases of the lift, but by far the most dangerous is when the knees collapse during the descent of any movement.

The reason for an inward knee collapse could be due to poor movement control (if the exercise is new), or excessive tightness in the adductor or calf muscles, but the most likely cause is weakness in the gluteal muscles.

If you exhibit this movement pattern, you should not add load until you can achieve ankle–knee–hip alignment through full range. This can be achieved by regular practice of the exercise using bodyweight squats with a theraband around your knees. Resisting against a theraband (alternatively ask someone to apply a small amount of pressure to the outside of your knees) provides a focus to your knee position which will help in aligning your ankles–knees–hips. In addition, incorporate the gluteal stability exercises detailed in Chapter 11.

Heels rise from the ground

Otherwise known as ‘knee dominant movement’. This is a common movement error in many individuals new to squatting. If you have strong quadriceps muscles as compared to your gluteals and/or have poor ankle mobility, it is likely you will tend to feel your heels lifting off the floor. It will be difficult to break this habitual pattern of movement at first, so practise with plenty of goblet squats (see Chapter 6) and bodyweight squats first.

Because the main muscle groups that squatting targets are the gluteals and hamstrings, the exercise needs to be initiated from the hips by pushing slightly back (as if sitting on a chair) before dropping vertically downwards. Place a chair or bench behind you and attempt to touch lightly in your bottom position before standing up.

Arabesque

Assesses:

* | Ability to hinge from the hips
* | Range of movement in hip flexion (hamstrings)
* | Unilateral balance and control

Procedure:

Fig. 4.3(i): Start position of the arabesque.

Fig. 4.3(ii): Finish position of the arabesque (side view).

Fig. 4.3(iii): Finish position of the arabesque (front view).

See Figs 4.3(i) to 4.3(iii).

* | Stand with the feet together and raise one foot slightly off the ground
* | Soften the knee of the standing leg slightly
* | Raise the arms to the side to assist with balance
* | Tighten the trunk and lift the chest
* | Bend over by flexing at the hip whilst maintaining a straight support side leg
* | Allow the free leg to swing back behind you to counteract the movement of your trunk
* | Flex over until the torso reaches almost parallel to the ground
* | There should be a straight line from the ankle of your swing leg to your shoulder
* | Return to standing by pushing the hips forwards
* | Complete six repetitions on each leg

Scoring:

Do you observe the following when you perform the arabesque on both sides:

From the side:

Is the lower back neutral (is the movement from a hip hinge)?

Is the knee on the support leg only slightly bent?

Do they achieve adequate range with the torso almost parallel to floor?

From the front:

Is there alignment between shoulder–hip–ankle on the swing leg side?

Is each repetition performed with balance and control?

Typical Errors and Corrections

Poor posture

Fig. 4.3(iv): Arabesque poor posture error.

When posture is poor, movement comes from the spine: see Fig. 4.3(iv). The ability to flex (or hinge) at the hip whilst keeping the lower back in a neutral position is probably the most important of all fundamental movement skills. When bending over to pick up an object, or lifting the knee when running, it is crucial that the stress is placed on the gluteals and hamstrings rather than the lower back. The gluteals and hamstrings (often referred to as the ‘posterior chain’) possess a huge capacity for handling and developing force, whereas the structures around the lower back are comparatively weak.

Figs 4.4(i) and 4.4(ii): Technique for learning an effective hip hinge.

If you cannot maintain a straight back position when performing an arabesque, it is important that you regress the movement to a bilateral version. Standing on two feet, lean forwards, place your hands on your thighs (see Fig. 4.4(i)) and tighten your back until it straightens (Fig. 4.4(ii)). Pretend you have a torch stuck up your bum and you are trying to shine the light into the sky! Next, attempt to move from a standing position into a hip hinge pattern. Stand half a stride from a wall and practise pushing your hips back slowly until they touch the wall whilst keeping your back straight.

Excessive knee bend on support leg

Fig. 4.3(v): Arabesque excessive knee bend error.

(See Fig. 4.3(v).) This is often an error observed in individuals new to this exercise who struggle to separate a squat pattern from a hip-hinge movement. Similar to a knee dominant squatting pattern, if the quadriceps are the strongest muscles of the lower limb and the gluteals are relatively weak, bending the knee will feel normal and natural. Equally, if you have a high degree of tightness in your hamstring, you will reach the end of your range very early in the movement and bend at the knee to achieve greater range.

The strategy to correct this error is to revert back to a two-leg position and simply keep practising a bilateral hip-hinge movement. Again, use the drill described for the poor posture error, whereby you push your butt backwards towards a wall to ensure you are moving from the hips. The knees should feel soft with a slight bend, and this should stay constant throughout the set. If your hamstrings tighten very early in the movement, hold this position for a few seconds before returning to standing. Also, regularly incorporate the hamstring stretches and mobilizations described in Chapter 13.

Lacking range of movement

If you find your torso doesn’t get anywhere near to parallel with the ground, the most likely reason is that you have not softened your support leg knee. Your hamstrings are unable to stretch fully across both the knee and the hip simultaneously, so if your knee is fully extended, you will reach end range very early at the hip. This is known as ‘passive insufficiency’, and occurs in muscles that cross two joints.

If you have a slight bend at the knee but are still lacking range, it is likely you are feeling a great deal of tightness at the back of your thigh, in your hamstrings. Include daily hamstring stretches (see Chapter 14), and practise this exercise daily as part of your warm-up routine to mobilize your hip into flexion.

Shoulder–hip–ankle misalignment

Fig. 4.3(vi): Arabesque hip hitch error.

Fig. 4.3(vi) shows a common error during an arabesque, a hitch with the free hip that results in the leg or torso becoming twisted. A small amount of hip hitching on the swing leg side is normal during an arabesque, but an excessive twisting of the pelvis that causes the rear leg to point out or the torso to rotate is considered an error. There are several possible reasons why this may occur, but it is most likely related to your motor control. As balance becomes a challenge on one leg, an upward shift of the free hip is the body’s attempt to shift as much mass as possible on to the standing leg.

It may also be related to tightness in one or more muscles around the hip. As the standing side leg moves into hip flexion, this also causes the hip to rotate inwards. If there is excessive tightness in these inward rotators, it causes a twist of the pelvis. Similarly, as the free leg swings backwards into hip extension, any excessive tightness in the gluteus maximus muscle or hamstrings may cause the hip to externally rotate more and the leg to face outwards.

One strategy to overcome this error is to perform a partial range arabesque and then practise opening and closing the hip by pivoting off your standing leg. Hold on to a stable object if you struggle for balance. If movement feels restricted when doing this, incorporating regular gluteal and hamstring mobility work will also help (see Chapter 14).

Lacking balance and control

Fig. 4.3(vii): Arabesque lacking balance and control error.

A sign that you are lacking balance and control is performing the exercise too fast: see Fig. 4.3(vii). Part of the reason that it is important to screen movements on one leg is that it provides an assessment of your ability to control movement through range with a narrow base of support. If you lack balance and stability on one leg, this is an important error to fix as you spend most of the time on one leg when you run!

There are several strategies to help you with your balance and movement control. The first is simply to practise. As your nervous system becomes more familiar with a new skill, the muscles responsible for stabilizing will improve their timing of contraction and proprioceptive feedback. For the arabesque, try fixing your gaze at one point on the ground in front of you when completing the movement. Ensure you tighten your trunk and gluteal muscles to create a more rigid body. If this doesn’t work, place the toes of your free leg on the ground lightly to help with balance, and perform a staggered ‘Romanian deadlift’ exercise (see Chapter 6).

Walking Lunge

Assesses:

* | Posture during dynamic forward stepping movement
* | Unilateral balance and control
* | Range of movement in hip extension (hip flexors/quadriceps)

Procedure:

Fig. 4.5(i): Walking lunge start position.

Fig. 4.5(ii): Walking lunge bottom position (side view).

Fig. 4.5(iii): Walking lunge bottom position (front view).

See Figs 4.5(i) to 4.5(iii).

* | From standing with both feet pointing forward and arms across chest, take an exaggerated step so the rear heel is raised from the ground
* | As you step forwards, lower the hips towards the ground by bending both legs
* | Descend until the thigh of the front leg breaks parallel with the ground and the knee of the rear foot is positioned just above the ground
* | The weight should be towards the back part of the front foot
* | The torso should remain upright throughout the movement, with the lower back neutral and the chest up
* | The rear leg should only be used to stabilize the movement
* | Drive through the heel of the front foot to stand up, before lungeing forwards with the opposite leg
* | Take twelve steps forwards (six repetitions on each leg)

Scoring:

Do you observe the following when you perform the walking lunge on both sides:

From the front:

Do the toes point forwards, and is the weight of the rear leg on the ball of the foot?

Is there ankle–knee–hip alignment?

From the side:

Is the weight through the rear of the front foot with the knee over the toes?

Is the torso upright?

Is the lower back neutral and the chest pulled up and out?

Is each step forwards performed with balance and control?

Typical Errors and Corrections

Rear foot flat or twisted

Fig. 4.5(iv): Walking lunge with the rear foot flat or twisted error.

Probably because of the unstable nature of unilateral exercises, it may be tempting to keep the rear foot as flat as possible, or to twist the foot so it rests on the inside edge. Both of these foot positions are incorrect, and are unintentional attempts to widen the base of support to the rear in an effort to improve balance.

The main function of raising the heel of the rear leg is to shift the bodyweight forwards so the work goes through the front leg. Plus, you need incredible mobility in your ankle to keep your rear foot flat, which for most people simply isn’t possible!

When learning to lunge, initially regress the exercise to a split squat (see Chapter 6). Squash the sole of the rear foot up against a wall so it fixes the correct position: using this stance, it isn’t possible to drop the heel. During split squats and lungeing exercises, relax the rear leg and allow your back foot to simply help with balance. Tighten your postural muscles through your trunk as described, which will assist in stabilizing the movement, and keep your gaze on a single point directly ahead of you to improve balance.

Front heel rises

Fig. 4.5(v): Walking lunge front heel rises error.

The front heel rises when knee transition is too far forward: see Fig. 4.5(v). By lowering your hips and pushing your knee forwards you should have sufficient range in your hip flexors for your thigh to break parallel to the ground. However, if you push your knee too far forwards, this will make the exercise more knee dominant and will reduce the contribution from the gluteal muscle.

Usually the knee travels too far forwards if the initial step forwards isn’t far enough, so first try stepping further into a lunge position. Regress initially to a split squat (see Chapter 6), and place a thin plate or book underneath the ball of the front foot. Aim to drop your hips directly downwards whilst shifting your bodyweight to the heel of your front foot.

Ankle–knee–hip misalignment

Fig. 4.5(vi): Walking lunge ankle–knee–hip misalignment error.

Otherwise known as ‘knee valgus’: see Fig. 4.5(vi). The underlying causes of this error are likely to be the same as knee valgus on the overhead squat. You may notice that on a unilateral exercise, one side collapses and the other remains aligned. The suggestions to overcome this technical error are the same as those highlighted on the overhead squat. Bodyweight squats and split squats should be performed before adding load, with a focus placed on driving the knees out along the line of the toes.

Torso not upright

Fig. 4.5(vii): Walking lunge torso not upright error.

Leaning forwards is an error: see Fig. 4.5(vii). The angle of the torso during the split squat and lungeing exercises should be relatively upright. A slight forward inclination will load the hips (gluteals) to a greater degree, but also places additional stress on the knee as it is positioned forward of the body’s centre of mass.

An excessive forward inclination is usually indicative of tightness in the hip flexor muscles. During the elevated version of the split squat (see Chapter 6) in particular, the hip flexors are almost on full stretch, so maintaining an upright position becomes a challenge to achieve. Ensuring your torso is in an upright position is actually a very useful means of stretching this tight area.

If tightness in your hip is causing your torso to be thrown forwards, ensuring your back knee is not fully extended will go some way to alleviating the issue. As you descend towards the ground, lead the movement with your rear knee, which should ensure it flexes sufficiently. Following a regular routine of stretching and foam-rolling exercises for your hip flexors should also correct this error within a few weeks (see Chapter 13).

Poor posture

Fig. 4.5(viii): Walking lunge poor posture error.

Poor posture may be the result of losing a neutral back position: see Fig. 4.5(viii). Due to the relative knee bias on lungeing movements, losing posture through the back tends to be less of an issue as compared to the squat, where a lack of range at the hips forces the spine into a poor position. Prior to initiating the first step forwards, lift your chest and tighten your trunk muscles. Maintain this state of contraction throughout the test.

When progressing to loaded variations of lungeing exercises (see Chapter 6), holding dumbbells will tend to be less stable than having a barbell on your back, so if you are struggling with posture, use a barbell initially. Attempt to bend the barbell across your back, thereby actively squeezing the shoulder blades together and lifting the chest.

Lacking balance and control

Fig. 4.5(ix): Walking lunge lacking balance and control error.

If the exercise is performed too fast, this is a sign that the balance and control may be lacking: see Fig. 4.5(ix). Due to the narrow base of support provided during unilateral exercises, balance and stability is likely to be an issue initially. With practice, this should become less of a problem, but if you are finding lungeing movements a particularly tough balance challenge, perform split squats (see Chapter 6) whilst lightly holding on to a wall or sturdy object. Staring at one point directly in front of you is also likely to help.

Superman

Assesses:

* | Contralateral stability around the trunk and hips
* | Balance and control in a crawling position

Procedure:

Fig. 4.6(i): Superman start position.

Fig. 4.6(ii): Superman top position (side view).

Fig. 4.6(iii): Superman top position (front view).

See Figs 4.6(i) to (iii).

* | Adopt a four-point kneeling position with the hands directly under the shoulders and the knees directly under the hips
* | Find a neutral back position and tighten the trunk
* | Slowly extend one leg out backwards and raise the opposite arm towards the ceiling
* | Sweep the leg and arm in and out slowly without touching the ground
* | Maintain a neutral back position throughout the movement
* | Perform six repetitions each side

Scoring:

Do you observe the following when you perform the superman on both sides:

From the side:

Does the lower back remain neutral (doesn’t extend) at the end of range?

Does the back remain neutral (doesn’t flex) as the arm/knee sweeps back in?

From the rear:

Do the hips remain stable, without shift to left or right?

Is there alignment between the shoulder-hip-ankle?

Is each repetition performed with balance and control?

Typical Errors and Corrections

Unable to hold a neutral back position

Fig. 4.6(iv): Superman flexed back position error.

See Fig. 4.6(iv): this is the most common error on this assessment, and signifies a lack of stability around the trunk to hold a neutral back, whilst the hips and shoulders move through range. As you extend outwards, the abdominals are called upon to prevent the lower back hyperextending. When you sweep back inwards, the back extensor muscles must contract to prevent the spine from flexing.

If you are unable to prevent this from happening, you will benefit from prioritizing trunk exercises in your programme to help stabilize the spine (see Chapter 8). You may also have excessive tightness around the hips that is pulling your back out of position. Incorporate some regular mobility work into your programme (see Chapter 14).

Hips shift left or right during movement

Fig. 4.6(v): Superman hip shift error.

See Fig. 4.6(v). If your hips shift to your support side during the movement, this is your body’s attempt to create more stability by shifting more weight over your support base. To prevent this lateral shifting, you need sufficient strength in your trunk and gluteal stabilizing muscles to support the opposite limb.

This error will usually be overcome relatively quickly by including some basic S&C for the lower limb and trunk in your programme. In the short term, adopt a three-point base of support by leaving your hand on the ground, so you sweep only one leg in and out.

Shoulder–hip–ankle misalignment

Fig. 4.6(vi): Superman shoulder–hip–ankle misalignment error.

See Fig. 4.6(vi). Some individuals will naturally allow their arm or leg to drift across or outwards during a superman, as a coping strategy to deal with instability. As a temporary measure, go back to a three-point support base (with both hands on the ground) and check that with just one leg moving, alignment can be maintained.

If misalignment is still present with this more stable base, it is likely that tightness around the hips is causing your pelvis to twist and pull your swing leg out of position. The mechanism and correction strategy for this dysfunction was previously described for misalignment during the arabesque movement.

Lacking balance and control

Removing your limbs from a stable base will disrupt your balance, and this must be offset by the muscles responsible for maintaining stability. Significant wobbles or a hurried movement are usually overcome by practising this skill. Ensure a state of contraction is maintained through the trunk, shoulders and gluteals, and stare at one point in front of you during the movement. As a temporary measure, go back to a three-point base of support, with both hands in contact with the ground.

Standing Rotation

Assesses:

* | Ability to lock the pelvis to the ribcage during a rotation movement
* | Internal rotation range of movement at the hip
* | Ability to pronate and supinate at the foot

Procedure:

Fig. 4.7(i): Standing rotation into the left side (execute the same movement into the right side).

See Fig. 4.7(i).

* | Remove your trainers and stand with the feet pointing forwards, hip width apart, and arms across the chest
* | Slowly rotate from the hips so the pelvis points about 45 degrees away from straight
* | Rotate in one direction, and then slowly move to the opposite direction
* | Movement should only come from turning the pelvis: avoid any side-to-side or forward-backward movement of the body

Scoring:

Do you observe the following when you perform the standing rotation both sides:

From the front:

Do you achieve approximately 45 degrees of rotation in both directions without pain or discomfort?

Does the lower back and chest move with the pelvis so the shoulders point in the same direction to the hips?

Does the knee opposite to the direction of rotation point in the same direction as the pelvis, at approximately 45 degrees across the body?

Does the foot opposite to the direction of rotation roll inwards slightly, so that pressure increases through the big toe?

Does the foot on the side of the rotation roll outwards slightly so pressure increases through the outside edge of the foot?

Typical Errors and Corrections

Lacking range of movement on one or both sides

When rotating the pelvis from a fixed standing position, it should feel fairly comfortable to move into around 45 degrees of rotation relative to the position of the feet. If this feels uncomfortable it is most likely that you are exhibiting one of the other errors described below. If this isn’t the case, it may be that you have a twisted pelvis position in the opposite direction to the side that feels uncomfortable. This will often cause a shortening of the deep rotator muscles of the hip, which prevents you moving freely when rotating in the opposite direction.

To correct this asymmetry it is advisable to seek advice from a physiotherapist or osteopath who will be able to provide you with some corrective exercises. Simply practising this exercise and stretching/ mobilizing your gluteal muscles (see Chapter 13) will certainly go some way to minimizing any compensatory movements you may possess as a result.

Torso is twisted

This occurs when the shoulders move but the hips stay relatively square, or vice versa. This screening movement is useful to identify how well you are able to control rotations through the trunk when the pelvis is required to move through range. If your hips stay relatively square as your shoulders rotate around, this will cause a large twisting movement through your thoracic or lumbar spine. Although some rotation is required through these regions for normal functioning, the range during this assessment should be achieved through the hips and feet.

To overcome this error, practise tightening your trunk, and focus on the inside shoulder following your hip as it rotates inwards. You should feel the restriction through your outside hip or foot (rather than torso) as you reach 45 degrees. Several of the anti-rotation exercises recommended in Chapter 8 ‘Trunk Training’ will also develop this skill.

Knee doesn’t rotate with pelvis

Fig. 4.7(ii): Standing rotation, knees remain pointing forwards error.

This is when the knee remains pointing forwards: see Fig. 4.7(ii). In order to use the power from your strong gluteal muscles during the running stride it is crucial that your hip possesses adequate internal rotation. During the stance phase of the running cycle, the foot rolls across (pronates) to attenuate impact forces, which causes the tibia (shin bone) to internally rotate and therefore the femur (thigh bone) to do the same. Excessive internal rotation is potentially very damaging to the knee, therefore as the femur begins to rotate, this causes the gluteal muscle to be activated, which stabilizes the knee.

Runners who lack internal rotation at the hip during this movement are unlikely to be loading their gluteals optimally when they run. Practise performing the correct movement during this exercise, include some basic unilateral work in your programme, and refer to the mobilizations/stretches described for the hip in Chapter 13.

Opposite foot doesn’t roll inwards

Fig. 4.7(iii): Standing rotation, feet stay flat error.

Otherwise called ‘restricted pronation’: see Fig. 4.7(iii). This assessment is a great way of checking whether you have sufficient motion around your feet. As your foot strikes the ground it does so slightly on the outside edge (in supination) before rolling across (pronation). If pronation is restricted it will feel uncomfortable and unnatural to load through your big toe during a standing rotation. A lack of pronation during the stance phase of running will cause unnecessary stress to structures around your foot and knee, and will prevent your Achilles from optimally storing elastic energy and your gluteals from activating properly.

If you notice that your foot fails to roll sufficiently, regress this movement to a simple knee swing exercise in sitting, whereby you move your knees from side to side whilst your feet are planted. You should feel the weight shifting from the inside to the outside of your feet. A more functional exercise you could also try is the heel-toe walk, described in Chapter 9.

Nearside foot doesn’t roll outwards

Otherwise called ‘restricted supination’. From a pronated and quite flat foot position during your stance phase in running, your foot should begin to roll outwards (into supination) just before you push off. If the motion at your foot is restricted into supination, this will cause undue stress to the structures of the lower limb and will prevent the foot acting as a rigid lever to allow the Achilles tendon to function properly.

During the standing rotation assessment, if you cannot feel weight naturally loaded on to the outside of your foot on the side you are turning to, then it is likely you are lacking supination. Follow the recommendations above for restricted pronation to address this error.

Hop and Stick

Assesses:

* | High load (eccentric) control at the hip and knee
* | Ability to maintain posture during explosive movement
* | Relative hip and knee dominance when generating and controlling force

Procedure:

Fig. 4.8(i): Hop and stick start position.

Fig. 4.8(ii): Hop and stick dip position.

Fig. 4.8(iii): Hop and stick landing position.

See Figs 4.8(i) to 4.8(iii).

* | Trainers must be worn for this test
* | Standing on one leg, perform a quarter squat and rapidly and explosively hop forwards, landing on the same leg as you pushed off with
* | Hop forwards as far as possible, but so you are balanced and stable on landing
* | There should be only a slight bend at the ankle, knee and hip on landing
* | Maintain a neutral back position throughout the test
* | Ankle–knee–hip should stay aligned during the dip and landing

Scoring:

Do you observe the following when you perform the hop and stick on both sides:

From the front:

Does the ankle–knee–hip remain aligned during the initial dip and on landing?

From the side:

Are the ankle, knee and hip only slightly flexed (quarter squat position) during the dip and landing?

Does the back remain in a neutral position with the chest up throughout the movement?

Is the landing balanced and under control?

Typical Errors and Corrections

Ankle–knee–hip misalignment

Fig. 4.8(iv): Hop and stick ankle–knee–hip misalignment error.

Otherwise known as knee valgus and/or hip pops: see Fig. 4.8(iv). Explosive unilateral movements such as hop and stick require a high level of strength to control the eccentric forces experienced on landing. Observing a misalignment between ankle, knee and hip is a common error and carries a high degree of injury risk so should be corrected as a priority. The issue is usually caused by a weakness or mis-timing of the gluteal stabilizing muscles that are responsible for controlling internal rotation and adduction at the hip. A lack of ankle mobility (dorsiflexion), or excessive pronation at the foot could also cause the knee to collapse inwards.

In contrast to other movement screen assessments, simply practising hop and stick is unlikely to fix this issue. Initially a good strategy is to go back to a single leg jump and stick, so you travel vertically and not horizontally. To rectify the stability issue in the gluteals, follow the recommendations and progressions described in Chapter 11 ‘Gluteal Stability’, and introduce strength training into your training programme. If your ankles are excessively tight, a regime of calf stretches is also likely to help correct this issue. This error must be corrected before you start incorporating plyometric training into your training routine.

Excessive flexion on landing

This may be caused by poor eccentric control. If the muscles of your lower limb are not sufficiently strong enough to stabilize the landing during a hop and stick for distance, you may feel your legs bending underneath you so you finish in a squatted position. This is because the forces you will experience on landing from a hop and stick are far greater than those you are used to when running.

Chapter 7 ‘Plyometric Training’ explains the benefits of exposing your body to higher eccentric loading demands. A hop and stick assessment provides a useful initial indicator of your readiness to include plyometrics in your programme. If your knee moves into a valgus position, or you cannot remain relatively stiff when you land, it is sensible to prioritize a strength training programme before you start thinking about adding plyometrics. Practising hop and sticks over a shorter distance or on the spot (vertically) as part of a warm-up is also a good idea.

Torso is too upright or thrown forward on takeoff and/or landing

Fig. 4.8(v): Hop and stick knee-dominant movement error.

Fig. 4.8(vi): Hop and stick hip-dominant movement error.

In this error either the knee is dominant (see Fig. 4.8(v)) or the hip is dominant (see Fig. 4.8(vi) in the movement. With careful inspection, it is possible to observe whether you adopt a knee- or a hip-dominant pattern of movement during jumping and hopping activities. Runners who perform their dip and landing in an arabesque position are hip dominant. Those who keep their torso bolt upright and allow their knee to travel forwards of their toe during take-off and landing are adopting a knee-dominant strategy. There are several reasons for these two motor-control strategies, including relative tightness of the hamstrings and calf, and strength in the quadriceps as compared to the gluteals.

The standard technical model for this assessment (and any plyometric activities) is to adopt a relatively balanced flexion across ankle–knee–hip in the dip and landing positions. This approximates to a quarter squat position, with the hips pushed slightly back and the knee positioned approximately over the toes. Performing some pauses at the end of the initial dip phase and then again upon landing is a useful approach to engrain the correct motor-control strategy. A balanced strength-training programme (see Chapter 6) that includes both knee- and hip-dominant exercises should also address any imbalances that might exist.

Poor posture

Fig 4.8(vii): Hop and stick poor posture error.

This is represented by loss of the neutral back position: see Fig. 4.8(vii). When landing from an explosive jump or hop, the trunk muscles that stabilize the spine will also experience a large increase in eccentric stress. With the majority of the focus placed upon stiffness and control around the knees and hips on landing, it is easy to neglect postural stability. If the back flexes during the hop or on landing, the lower limb is required to control and dissipate even higher forces.

If the lower limb is behaving correctly but the posture looks quite lazy, simply place the focus on tightening the trunk and shoulder blades prior to initiating the hop. There is perhaps no need to regress the distance or complexity unless you repeatedly struggle to achieve better posture.

Lacking balance on landing

It is likely that if you are wobbling and lack balance upon landing, then one or more of the errors described above is also being exhibited. If you are hitting the technical markers consistently but still feel unstable on landing, balance should improve with practice. Instead of simply performing dozens of straight line hop and sticks to work on this quality, proprioception and timing of muscle activation will be more rapidly developed by including some variety in terms of distance, direction and movement. Try including some vertical hops with a 90-degree rotation, some lateral or zig-zag hops, and hops of varying distances in your warm-up routine.

Table 4b: How to record your own scores.

CAPACITY TESTS

In Chapter 3, the most common injuries experienced by endurance runners were identified. The underlying reasons why an injury develops are usually quite complex, so diagnosis requires a multi-disciplinary approach. From an S&C perspective, movement control, range of movement and strength of tissues vulnerable to injury can all be tested and subsequently influenced. Capacity testing assesses the robustness of specific areas of the body that are important for endurance running: the calf/Achilles, hamstring and trunk. The only other area that may be valuable to test is the gluteal muscle; however, function of the glutes is assessed in a range of different ways during movement screening.

These tests are time efficient, simple and require minimal equipment, so are suitable for runners of all ages and abilities. Although scoring well on these tests won’t guarantee that you’ll never suffer an injury, they do provide a strong indicator of areas that are more vulnerable to ‘niggles’. If you score ‘poor’ or ‘satisfactory’ in these tests, it would be wise to dedicate a significant portion of time to the capacity exercises described in Chapters 8 to 12 for the areas in which you are deficient.

KEY INFORMATION

Capacity tests assess the robustness of specific muscles and tissues at sites that typically might suffer an injury. The tests are simple and easy to administer so can be used by runners of all ages and standards. Aim to achieve excellent scores across all the capacity tests.

Single Leg Calf Raise

Assesses:

* | Capacity of the calf complex and Achilles tendon

Procedure:

Fig. 4.9(i): Single leg calf raise capacity test (bottom position).

Fig. 4.9(ii): Single leg calf raise capacity test (top position).

See Figs 4.9(i), 4.9(ii).

* | Perform this test without trainers on
* | Stand on a low step facing a wall or stable object
* | Shuffle backwards so that the heels overhang and only the balls of the feet are positioned on the box
* | Maintain balance with the fingertips only
* | Remove one foot from the box
* | Raise the hips as high as possible by squeezing hard in the calf
* | Lower the heel down until it reaches below the level of the step and you feel a stretch in the calf
* | Perform both upward and downward phases under control (1sec up, 1sec down) without bouncing
* | The knee should remain completely straight throughout the test
* | The hips should remain level with no hitching to achieve height
* | The test is terminated when the technique or tempo can no longer be achieved
* | Record how many repetitions you achieve on both the right and the left sides

Rating | Poor | Satisfactory | Excellent
Repetitions | <15 | 15–30 | >30
Priority for conditioning | Foot and ankle capacity exercises (see Chapter 9) | Strength and rate of activation exercises

Scoring:

A discrepancy of more than five in the repetitions between the right and left sides signifies an asymmetry and is also a cause for concern.

Single Leg Hamstring Bridge

Assesses:

* | Capacity of the hamstring muscle group

Procedure:

Fig.4.10(i): Single leg hamstring bridge (bottom position).

Fig. 4.10(ii): Single leg hamstring bridge (top position).

See Figs 4.10(i) and 4.10(ii).

* | Lie on your back with one foot resting on a stable box or bench 48cm high
* | Shuffle away from the box until there is only a slight bend at the knee
* | Float the opposite leg so it remains uninvolved
* | Place the arms across the chest
* | Push through the heel on the box to raise the hips until there is a straight line between knee, hip and shoulder
* | Lower the back down until the buttocks lightly touch the floor
* | Perform both upward and downward phases under control (1sec up, 1sec down) without bouncing
* | The knee should remain slightly bent throughout the test
* | The test is terminated when the technique or tempo can no longer be achieved
* | Record how many repetitions you achieve on the right and the left sides

Rating | Poor | Satisfactory | Excellent
Repetitions | <15 | 15–30 | >30
Priority for conditioning | Hamstring capacity exercises (see Chapter 10) | Strength and rate of activation exercises

Scoring:

A discrepancy of more than five repetitions between the right and left sides signifies an asymmetry and is also a cause for concern.

Press-ups

Assesses:

* | Capacity of the upper limb musculature

Procedure:

Fig. 4.11(i): Press-up capacity test (top position).

Fig. 4.11(ii): Press-up capacity test (bottom position).

See Figs 4.11(i) and 4.11(ii).

* | Facing the ground, position the hands directly under the shoulders and turned slightly outwards
* | Position the feet hip width apart and with the hips high enough so there is a straight line between ankles–hips–shoulders
* | The lower back should be in a neutral position
* | Initiate descent by breaking the elbows backwards and slightly outwards
* | Lower the chest until it is a fist height from the ground (best marked with a sports drink bottle)
* | Push against the ground to extend the elbows, and return to start position
* | Maintain ankle–hip–shoulder alignment and a neutral lower back throughout
* | Perform both upward and downward phases under control (1sec up, 1sec down) without bouncing
* | The test is terminated when the technique or tempo can no longer be achieved
* | Record how many repetitions you achieve

Scoring:

Rating | Poor | Satisfactory | Excellent
Repetitions | <20 | 20–40 | >40
Priority for conditioning | Bodyweight upper limb strength training (see Chapter 6) | Loaded upper limb exercises

Prone Extension

Assesses:

* | Capacity of the lower back and hip extensors

Procedure:

Fig. 4.12: Prone hold capacity test position.

See Fig. 4.12.

* | Lie face down on a bench or mat with a thick plate placed underneath and in line with the edge
* | Shuffle forwards along the bench/mat until the top of your pelvis is directly on the edge
* | Ask a partner to anchor your lower legs by lying across them or applying pressure
* | Place your arms across your chest so your torso is suspended and there is a straight line between shoulders, hips and knees
* | Fix your gaze directly downwards and hold this position for as long as possible
* | Ensure the trunk doesn’t drift downwards or extend any further upwards
* | The test is terminated when the torso can no longer be fixed in this position
* | Record how long you held the position

Scoring:

Rating | Poor | Satisfactory | Excellent
Duration(s) | <90 | 90–180 | >180
Priority for conditioning | Trunk capacity exercises (see Chapter 8) and basic strength training (see Chapter 6) | Loaded strength and trunk exercises

Side Plank

Assesses:

* | Capacity of the lateral trunk musculature

Procedure:

Fig. 4.13: Side plank capacity test position.

See Fig. 4.13.

* | Perform this test without trainers on
* | Lie on your side with your elbow directly under your shoulder
* | Support your upper body weight on your forearm
* | Raise your body and legs off the ground so you are resting only on the outside of your bottom foot and forearm
* | Place your top foot in front of your bottom foot
* | Find a neutral back position and tighten your trunk
* | There should be alignment between your top ankle–knee–hip–shoulder
* | Place your free hand on your supporting shoulder
* | Ensure your hips don’t drop downwards
* | The test is terminated when this position can no longer be held
* | Record how long you held the position on your right and your left side

Scoring: see table below.

A discrepancy of more than 20sec between your right and your left side signifies an asymmetry and is also a cause for concern.

Scoring:

Rating | Poor | Satisfactory | Excellent
Duration(s) | <60 | 60–120 | >120
Priority for conditioning | Trunk capacity exercises (see Chapter 8) | Trunk strength exercises

Double Leg Hold

Assesses:

* | Capacity of the anterior trunk musculature and hip flexors

Procedure:

Fig. 4.14: Double leg hold capacity test position.

See Fig. 4.14.

* | Lie on your back on a mat with a rigid object just above your head
* | Find a neutral lower back position so your fingers can just slide under the small of your lower back
* | Tighten your abdominals so your lower back is fixed in this position
* | Grip the rigid object above your head to anchor yourself
* | Ensure your legs are completely straight, then raise your heels one inch off the mat
* | Hold this position for as long as possible
* | Ensure your lower back doesn’t begin to arch upwards or to flatten against the mat
* | Your knees must remain straight and your heels one inch off the ground
* | The test is terminated when you can no longer maintain this position
* | Record how long you held the position

Scoring:

Rating | Poor | Satisfactory | Excellent
Duration(s) | <60 | 60–120 | >120
Priority for conditioning | Trunk capacity exercises (see Chapter 8) | Trunk strength exercises

PERFORMANCE TESTS

Assessing qualities that closely link to endurance running performance will usually fall outside the remit of the S&C coach. Assessments such as the multi-stage fitness (or bleep) test, the Balke test (15min run) and the Cooper run (12min) have all been used as valid predictors of aerobic capacity and race performances. Élite athletes may be lucky enough to have access to a physiology laboratory, where determinants of performance can be more accurately measured and monitored over time. Many S&C activities, particularly strength training and plyometrics, have been shown to directly enhance running economy. Therefore assessment of a runner’s physiology can be helpful to gauge the impact of a training intervention involving these activities.

S&C coaches will often use assessments of anaerobic qualities such as a 30m sprint test from a rolling start to assess pure speed, and a 400m time trial to indirectly measure anaerobic capacity. These tests clearly carry far less relevance to distance running performance, but are useful to assess the impact of a strength-training programme on specific power (running speed) and anaerobic qualities.

To measure 30m sprint time, you will need access to timing gates. Attempting to time such a short duration with a hand-held stopwatch simply wouldn’t be sufficiently accurate. Timing gates use a beam of light which when broken activates a timer. The clock stops when the second beam of light is broken at a set of gates positioned 30m from the first. To assess pure speed, take a run-up of around 30–40m to ensure you reach the first set of timing gates at top speed. Cover the 30m between the light gates as fast as possible. The 400m time trial should be completed on a windless day round an athletics track and can be timed with a hand-held stopwatch.

If this data is combined with personal best times across a broader range of distances, it is possible to chart a runner’s speed profile, which can then be compared against the profiles of other runners. This is particularly useful for young runners, as it becomes obvious where their natural talents lie. For more experienced runners it provides an indicator of physiological strengths and weaknesses, which can help inform training priorities and race tactics.

KEY INFORMATION

Performances tests assess running specific components of your fitness. Your races and time trials are obviously the real acid of your fitness, but shorter distances such as a 30m and 400m sprint test will provide a more complete profile of your strengths and weaknesses.

STRENGTH DIAGNOSTICS

Various strength-related qualities can be assessed indirectly using repetition maximum testing and jump testing. If you are embarking upon an S&C programme for the first time and have little experience in lifting weights or performing plyometric training, most of the tests in this category of assessments are not necessary. Unless you are regularly lifting heavy loads at three repetitions or less and performing moderate to high intensity plyometrics, performing these tests is potentially quite risky and the scores you achieve will carry very little meaning.

Many coaches will argue that it is useful always to assess maximum strength as it provides a baseline score to track progress. Improvements in the early stages of a strength-training programme are almost all related to adaptations in the nervous system, and more specifically the co-ordination involved with performing an exercise. Therefore any improvements observed in a strength retesting session in the early days of your S&C are likely to be a reflection of an enhanced level of skill on the exercise you’ve used to assess strength.

One-Repetition Maximum (1RM) Testing

For runners well versed in strength-training exercises, a test to assess the maximum load that can be lifted on the leg-press machine is potentially useful. Traditionally, the back squat has been used as an assessment for maximum strength, but for safety reasons it is imperative that a qualified coach is available to assist you in the event of a failed lift. For this reason, a standard leg-press machine offers a much safer alternative. Unilateral leg strength (and a ratio between the right and left legs) is often assessed with a rear-foot elevated split squat, but again this brings with it safety concerns if it is attempted unsupervised. A single leg press is therefore a more appropriate assessment strategy if working alone or with unqualified individuals.

There are dozens of different makes and models of leg-press machine, which makes standardization of the test and comparison of scores quite tricky. Technical instructions for performing a leg press are similar to a squat exercise (see Chapter 6). For a repetition to be counted, the angle of the knees should be less than 90 degrees in the bottom position. Other than this requirement, ensure that you standardize each testing session by noting the machine set-up and your foot position.

Procedure:

* | Warm-up set of 8 reps at light weight (approx. 50 per cent current/estimated 1RM)

*

5 reps at 70 per cent 1RM
3 reps at 80 per cent 1RM
1 rep at 90 per cent 1RM
Three 1 rep attempts to determine a new 1RM

Vertical Jump

Plyometric qualities can be assessed in several ways. A simple vertical jump test indirectly assesses explosive power in the lower limb, so it is useful to monitor regularly in order to track improvements. The assessment is simple to complete and involves little excessive loading, so is therefore suitable for runners of any standard and experience. The sergeant jump test is traditionally used by many practitioners to assess vertical jump height, and requires only chalk and a tape measure.

Procedure:

Fig. 4.15(i): Sergeant jump test: start position to mark the point where your fingertips reach.

Fig. 4.15(ii): Sergeant jump test: leap as high as possible and slap the wall with your chalked fingers to mark the highest point.

See Figs 4.15(i) and 4.15(ii).

* | Stand side-on to a wall with your arm raised overhead and mark the point where your fingertips reach
* | Rub a small amount of chalk on your fingertips
* | Leap vertically as high as possible, slapping the wall with your chalked fingers at the highest point
* | Measure the difference between the two chalk marks
* | Have three attempts with 1min rest between each
* | A jump mat will provide an instantaneous and much more valid measure of the height you can jump by timing how long you spend in the air (see Fig. 4.16)

Fig. 4.16: A vertical jump test is more valid if it is performed on a contact mat.

Scoring:

Take your best score from your three attempts.

Rating | Poor | Satisfactory | Excellent
Jump height (cm) | <30 | 30–45 | >45

Reactive Strength Index

A vertical jump has little reliance on plyometric qualities and uses far less stored elastic energy than during running. Therefore a ‘reactive strength index’ (RSI) assessment is a more valid test of your plyometric qualities. It is a good idea to gain some experience of low-level plyometrics before you perform this assessment, but generally speaking it is safe and valid for the majority of runners to perform. Unfortunately, if you do not have access to a jump mat that measures both contact time and jump height you will be unable to perform this assessment.

Procedure:

Fig. 4.17(i): Reactive strength index (RSI) drop jump step off.

Fig. 4.17(ii): Reactive strength index (RSI) instant rebound for height.

See Figs 4.17(i) and 4.17(ii).

* | Stand on a 30cm box or step with a jump mat positioned directly in front of you
* | Step off the box by holding one leg in front of you and allowing your bodyweight to slowly tip forwards
* | Contact the mat with both feet and immediately rebound vertically upwards attempting to jump as high as possible
* | Land back on the mat with both feet
* | Record your jump height and contact time
* | Have three attempts with 1min rest between each

Scoring:

To calculate your RSI, divide the height you jumped (in metres) by the time you spent on the ground (in seconds). For example, if you jumped 40cm and spent 0.2sec on the ground, your RSI = 0.4m/0.2sec = 2. Take your best score from your three attempts.

Rating | Poor | Satisfactory | Excellent
RSI | <1.5 | 1.5–3 | >3

Hop and Stick Distance

Although the ability to produce force vertically is more important, assessments on one leg, which tend to rely on explosive strength from the muscles around the hip, are better measured in a horizontal direction. A hop and stick for distance is a simple and reliable assessment of unilateral power, which also allows a comparison between right and left to identify any potential imbalance.

Procedure:

See Figures 4.8(i) to 4.8(iii) in the ‘Movement Screening Assessments’ section in this chapter.

* | Place a tape measure on the ground and position the toes at 0cm
* | To complete the test, refer to the instructions provided for the hop and stick assessment in the ‘Movement Screening Assessments’ section for this chapter (page 59)
* | Attempt to cover as much distance as possible but only count attempts where the landing is balanced and stable for two seconds
* | Measure the distance covered to the heel of the foot
* | Record your hop distance
* | Switch legs and have three attempts each side, with 1min rest between each

Scoring:

Take your best score from your three attempts on each leg.

A discrepancy of more than 30cm between the right and left sides signifies an asymmetry and is a cause for concern.

Rating | Poor | Satisfactory | Excellent
Hop distance (cm) | <120 | 120–200 | >200

KEY INFORMATION

Assessing your maximum strength is only meaningful once you have at least a year of resistance training experience. Measuring the height you can jump vertically, or the distance you can hop on each leg, involves far less skill and risk than a maximum strength test. Use these tests to assess your explosive strength capabilities if you are new to S&C or have only basic equipment.

2 | STRENGTH TRAINING

It may seem as if strength training offers very little benefit to endurance running due to the vastly different physical demands of the activities. It is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that many runners and their coaches approach lifting weights with a certain amount of trepidation and cynicism. The first part of this section will attempt to address some of these concerns directly. Based upon the analysis of endurance running physiology and biomechanics, the main purpose of this section is to introduce key resistance training and plyometrics exercises that are most likely to enhance your performance.

CHAPTER 5: DISPELLING MYTHS

It’s fair to say that most S&C exercises bear little resemblance to running, so it is crucial that there is a convincing reason for including each in your training programme. Based upon the theoretical rationale presented in Chapters 2 and 3 for including S&C activities, and the direct scientific evidence that is presented in the next chapter, hopefully you will be convinced that including strength training in your weekly routine is worth the time investment. In this opening chapter on strength-training techniques it is worth addressing directly some of the myths and misconceptions associated with strength training, which might otherwise be used as excuses to exclude certain exercises.

FIRST MYTH: LIFTING WEIGHTS WILL MAKE ME PUT ON MUSCLE

For most people, lifting weights conjures up the image of muscle-bound men grunting loudly in gyms and admiring their physique! It is therefore understandable that most endurance runners struggle to comprehend why including resistance training in their programme will offer any sort of benefit to their performance. As mentioned in Chapter 2, any increase in bodyweight is detrimental to endurance performance, as more energy (and therefore oxygen) is required to move a larger mass.

Same Means, Different Method

The best way to sum up the difference between the use of resistance training for aesthetic purposes, and how it should be used to improve running performance, is ‘same means, different method’. In other words, it is reasonable to expect a large degree of overlap between many of the exercises that are used by gym goers looking to build up their muscles, and those suggested for sports performers. But the difference comes when we consider how those exercises are used, coached and programmed.

When resistance training is used with the goal of increasing muscle size, the focus is generally placed on individual muscles and attempts to stimulate the fibres within that muscle. With the correct intake of nutrients, the muscle responds by growing with more contractile proteins within each fibre, thereby making its appearance bigger (known as ‘hypertrophy’). This demands a focused approach to training various different body parts, which requires a high volume of work spread over the course of a training week. The volumes and frequencies of the weight-training exercises that are required to enhance performance are simply not the same, so are very unlikely to produce any gains in muscle mass.

The approach taken in an S&C setting should be very different. For you to improve at running, your nervous system is required to generate a higher level of force in a shorter period of time. To achieve this, the focus needs to be on training movement rather than muscles. This is because your nervous system will not recognize whether individual muscles are big or small, strong or weak, but will develop force through patterns of coordinated limb movement that have been repeatedly practised.

So although some of the exercises that both bodybuilders and sports performers use will have a similarity, the focus for a runner should be on training their neuromuscular system to develop specific force-related qualities through movement patterns that have similarity to the running action. Approaching strength training with this mindset should hopefully give you a different perspective on how resistance training can be used for different purposes.

The Interference Effect

Another reason there is little risk of gaining weight during training programmes that contain both strength and endurance training is a phenomenon known as ‘the interference effect’. Around a dozen scientific studies have shown that when strength and endurance training are programmed concurrently, endurance seems to benefit from weight training, but gains in strength-related qualities tend to be compromised. Hypertrophy seems to be particularly sensitive and becomes more severely blunted with higher frequencies of endurance running. The interference with strength adaptation is partly due to a conflict between signalling pathways at a molecular level within the muscle. It appears that the repeated muscular contractions associated with endurance running release an energy-sensing enzyme that blocks the pathway responsible for muscle growth. Given the ratio of strength training to endurance training that you’ll ultimately include in your programme, it is highly likely that the endurance training will prevent any gains in muscle mass.

Similarly, the scientific studies that have investigated the effect of weight training on runners have generally shown very positive benefits on endurance performance. Importantly there is no evidence in these studies that bodyweight increased in any of the participants involved. This suggests that the added value delivered by strength training is the result of adaptations in the nervous system to improve qualities relating to force generation.

KEY INFORMATION

As an endurance runner, lifting weights is highly unlikely to increase your muscle mass. A bodybuilder may use similar exercises to an S&C coach, but the prescription of these exercises differs significantly.

SECOND MYTH: WEIGHT TRAINING CAUSES INJURY

Runners and coaches often fear that lifting heavy loads carries with it a high risk of injury. This is probably because adding external load to the body places a level of stress on muscles and joints to which runners are not accustomed. This is not unreasonable to assume if the technique that is adopted to carry out the exercises is poor. Simply executing the movements with no regard for proper technique will place excessive overload on joints that aren’t necessarily designed to handle heavy loads.

Therefore in dispelling this myth, the most important consideration is to learn and practise the correct techniques as described in this book, before adding any further load to basic exercises. If you can maintain form throughout each set under a load that is appropriate for you, the risk of sustaining an injury is negligible. Every strength-training exercise recommended in this section simply involves loading a basic human movement – for example the squat, step-up, lunge, push, pull – that underpins more complex skills, such as the running action.

Relative Risk Compared to Other Sports

You may also be surprised to hear that weight training both as a recreational activity and also as a sport actually carries a very low risk of injury. Compared to many other contact and invasion game sports, which you probably wouldn’t think twice about taking part in, lifting weights is one of the safest: one survey found that only about two to four injuries occurred for every 10,000 hours of participation time in weight-lifting activities, while for cross-country runners the survey reported approximately thirty-seven injuries for every 10,000 hours of training.

Although it may not seem like it, the forces the body is exposed to during weight training are far less than the impact forces experienced during many other sports. Thus when you are running, the forces your joints experience each time your foot strikes the ground are higher than almost all the weight-training exercises recommended. In addition, the movement skills required for running and playing most other sports are actually far more complex than the techniques used to lift weights. Even if you do have a slightly suspect technique when lifting weights, the forces affecting your body are very unlikely to cause injury as compared to the repetitive impact forces you experience when running long distances. Thus lifting weights is actually one of the safest activities out there!

Natural Mechanisms offer Protection

When it comes to lifting heavy loads, there is actually very little to fear, as the body has remarkable protective mechanisms to prevent you hurting yourself. These protective sensors contained deep within your muscles and tendons are known as ‘proprioceptors’, and are responsible for detecting changes in muscle length and muscle tension. The important ones for strength training are called ‘Golgi tendon organs’, located at the attachment point between muscles and bones. These proprioceptors send signals to the brain telling us how much tension a muscle is creating. The reason why lifting weights very rarely strains muscles is because the Golgi tendon organs tend to be overly sensitive and cautious. In some ways this is a good thing, as they prevent us injuring ourselves, but on the other hand, they actually prevent progress. Luckily, a major adaptation that can be seen after a period of strength training is a dampening or disinhibition of the Golgi tendon organs: this can be likened to taking the handbrake off a muscle’s ability to produce force!

KEY INFORMATION

Compared to other sports and training activities, lifting weights carries a very low risk of injury. Improving your basic movement skills and strengthening bones, muscles and connective tissue will significantly lower your risk of injury long-term.

The vast majority of running injuries are caused by a cumulative overload to a specific area of the lower body. Thus there is potentially an argument that including S&C exercises in a training programme simply adds to the already high volumes of loading that you are experiencing. This is perhaps true, but is important to bear in mind the value of S&C, and whether a small amount of running volume can be sacrificed to accommodate S&C activities. In addition, it is important to remember that injury is generally caused by repetitive cycles of loading to specific tissues. If movement/posture is poor or tissues have a low tolerance to loading, an injury is almost inevitable. If S&C exercises are executed with correct technique and in appropriate dosages, over time they will correct faulty movements/postures and cause vulnerable tissues to adapt, therefore preventing injury.

THIRD MYTH: LIFTING WEIGHTS WILL LEAVE ME WITH EXCESSIVE MUSCLE SORENESS

Many runners fear that performing a series of strength-training exercises will result in excessive levels of muscle soreness, which will negatively impact their running sessions. Delayed onset muscle soreness, or ‘DOMS’ as it is often known, is mainly the result of eccentric muscle contractions through a movement pattern the limb is unfamiliar with. The soreness sensation you experience is the result of microscopic damage to areas of the muscle. Although it might feel uncomfortable, DOMS is not the same as an actual muscle strain, so is certainly less to worry about. Indeed, scientific evidence actually shows that endurance performance is largely unaffected by DOMS, so any concern that it might adversely affect your sessions is often misplaced. However, when you are experiencing DOMS it is a good idea to carry out a thorough warm-up that starts at a slower pace than usual, and also ensure that you incorporate additional post-workout stretching exercises (see Chapter 13) to prevent the area becoming overly tight.

DOMS tends to be quite short-lived, peaking at about twenty-four to forty-eight hours after the session that has caused the damage, but disappearing within a few days. Luckily a phenomenon known as the ‘repeat bout effect’ exists, which means that once an exercise has caused DOMS, your muscle will cope much better with the same prescription the second time round. So instead of worrying that your new S&C programme has made you sore and that the same thing will happen every week, try it again, because you’ll be surprised how quickly you can progress with the new programme.

New Exercises Cause Soreness

The running cycle involves about three ground contacts per second, which in turn involves an eccentric loading of the lower leg, but because the endurance runner is highly familiar with this loading pattern, it is unlikely to cause much soreness day to day. However, it is likely that many of the S&C exercises suggested in this book will be new to you, and so carry a much greater likelihood of causing DOMS. The endurance running action is a repetitive skill that takes place through a fairly restricted range of movement; most S&C exercises, on the other hand, should be performed through a wide range of movement to ensure the entire muscle is worked effectively.

KEY INFORMATION

You may experience some muscle soreness in the day or two after a resistance training session. Don’t panic! This is a normal response to training and is unlikely to adversely effect your running sessions. If you feel sore, carry out a thorough warm-up and ensure you include some stretching post-run.

This means that DOMS tends to be a more likely occurrence for an endurance runner, as you are working weak regions of your muscle, which are rarely placed under any significant load. So start light with strength exercises, and focus on technique and achieving full range of movement. Conditioning exercises in the ‘rate of activation’ bracket and plyometrics involve rapid eccentric contractions, so approach these exercises with caution. Follow the guidelines indicated, and ensure they are preceded by a thorough warm-up.

If you find that you are experiencing DOMS after every S&C session, it is likely that you are progressing too quickly. Don’t be afraid to back off and reduce the load on exercises so your muscles are placed under less stress during the eccentric phase of movements. Aches and soreness are a normal part of the adaptation process, but there is no reason why S&C should be making you sore every week or hampering your running sessions.

FOURTH MYTH: TO RUN FASTER ALL MY TRAINING TIME WOULD BE BEST SPENT RUNNING

A logical argument for excluding any activity except running from your programme is that in order to get better at something, you need to practise it. This is the simple basis of a training principle known as ‘specificity’: your body will adapt to the specific demands you place upon it. Applying this principle in your running training sessions is fairly straightforward. Hard interval sessions or tempo runs are used to rehearse the pace you need to be accustomed to when you race. If you are training for a longer distance, gradually running for longer periods of time is specific to the outcome you are after. However, most coaches and athletes also include other types of running session that are either over or under distance in an attempt to work on speed or more stamina-type qualities. There is logic in this approach and good physiological reasons for doing this; however, these sessions are also less specific!

So if you are willing to perform running training that deviates from your race pace or race distance, there is also no reason why you shouldn’t start considering the other important physical qualities that make up your running performance. Running sessions that overload various physiological attributes that are key to your performance should always take up the majority of your training time, but sacrificing small units of running time to overload other physical qualities is also a wise choice.

Supplement your Running

Chapters 2 and 3 broke down the physiology and biomechanics of endurance running to the most basic qualities that underpin performance. Certainly, following a running-only training programme will enhance the majority of these qualities for a considerable length of time, but at some point you will need to start considering how you can overload some of the more specific qualities, thereby pushing you through your plateaus and helping to maximize your potential. Taking a more thorough approach to the planning and prescription of your training will ultimately mean you are forced to deviate from your running-only training programme. However, you are likely to be rewarded with better performances and less time spent on the sidelines with injury.

Whether to drop some running out of your programme, or to supplement your schedule with S&C sessions, is often a difficult choice. Élite athletes and coaches are rarely willing to give up precious running sessions for time with the S&C coach, and recreational runners will tend to prioritize running at every opportunity due to lack of time. Ultimately, making a decision on when and where to place S&C exercises is down to you, and the time you have available. Interestingly, the majority of scientific studies that have demonstrated benefits to endurance performance by including strength training, have supplemented the participants’ training programmes with exercises, rather than replacing endurance training.

If you are limited for time and run just a few times per week, squeezing in additional S&C sessions may not be realistic. Based upon the advice presented in this book, it is advisable to incorporate S&C exercises into your warm-ups and cool-downs and include the exercises that you can safely perform with the facilities and equipment you have available.

An often overlooked reason for including some non-running based training in your programme is the variation that a novel and alternative set of activities provides. One of the underlying causes of the ‘unexplained underperformance syndrome’ that many élite distance runners experience, is staleness and a lack of motivation that comes with following the same monotonous routine for long periods. Aside from the qualities that S&C activities promote, they can also simply provide a mental (and to some extent physical) break from the monotony of a high volume schedule of endurance running, whilst still serving as a productive use of training time.

KEY INFORMATION

You may be reluctant to swap a run for an S&C session in your training programme. Long-term this is likely to pay-off by improving your performances and reducing your chances of getting injured.

FIFTH MYTH: ENDURANCE PERFORMERS NEED MUSCULAR ENDURANCE NOT MUSCULAR STRENGTH

The suggestion that endurance runners require higher levels of muscular endurance than muscular strength is exactly right! If this weren’t the case, then we would see skinny endurance runners winning weightlifting competitions! Endurance running performance is limited by a number of key factors that are mainly related to the cardiovascular system. But does this mean that when you perform your S&C training you need to try and improve the endurance of your muscles even more? Given that you will spend most of your training time running, and that this is the best and most specific way to develop your muscular endurance, it is much more sensible to spend your S&C sessions overloading other important qualities.

The ‘Specificity Trap’

Most S&C exercises are not particularly ideal for improving your muscular endurance. Although the movement patterns are similar to those that you use when you run, strength-training exercises are generally simpler movement skills, so are ideal for improving fundamental strength qualities. Attempting to perform hundreds of squats in succession in an effort to be more ‘specific’ will not provide any greater benefit over simply going out for a run. So try and avoid falling into the ‘specificity trap’ by attempting to simulate the sport: use the right tools for the right job. If you want to improve your muscular endurance, go for a run; if you want to improve your strength qualities, then lift some weights!

KEY INFORMATION

Resistance training should be used to improve muscular strength related qualities. Strength training is general in nature so there is no need to try to make exercises more ‘specific’ to endurance running. Use the right tools for the right job!

The conditioning exercises in Chapters 8 to 12 include an element of muscular endurance. For areas of the body that are susceptible to injury, you should first aim to build the capacity of a muscle to repeatedly tolerate loading, which is very similar to improving the endurance of the joint or muscle. So although the main gym exercises are better for building strength, any conditioning for specific muscles or connective tissue may use an element of muscular endurance-style training prescription.

SIXTH MYTH: YOUNG RUNNERS SHOULDN’T LIFT WEIGHTS

If there were a specific category of athlete this book could be aimed at, it would be adolescent athletes and their coaches. Strength training for young athletes is a hugely neglected and misunderstood area amongst runners, coaches and parents. If the concerns around the risks of strength training for young runners are addressed, it may reduce the high drop-out rate that the sport currently sees as adolescents enter their late teens and inevitably begin to suffer more injuries. The benefits of S&C for the young athlete are much the same as for adults in terms of the adaptations that occur within the body, but the long-term impact upon performance and participation is potentially far greater.

Early Specialization

There is a tendency in schools and sports clubs around the country to identify young talented athletes, and push them towards specializing in the sports they excel at from a young age. There are, of course, many examples of sports performers who have specialized at a young age and developed into world beaters. However, there is plenty of evidence to show that achieving success after specializing in childhood is an exception, rather than the norm. Children will invariably enjoy participating in the sports or events they naturally excel at, and involvement should certainly be encouraged. However, placing young athletes on highly focused and watered-down versions of adult training schedules is detrimental to their long-term development.

For the young athlete who enjoys distance running, current recommendations suggest specializing after the age of sixteen years old. Before this age, participating in as many other sports and different athletics events as possible should be the aim. If possible, limit specific endurance running to three times per week, and maintain a high level of variety and quality in sessions. Outside this, other endurance-based activities could be included, such as swimming and cycling. Learning fundamental skills associated with strength training should also be a part of this range of activities. This approach is likely to develop, to a much greater degree, a well-rounded, robust young athlete with the capacity to develop their training and resist injury well into adulthood.

Window of Opportunity

The nervous system develops at an incredibly fast rate during childhood, which means that during adolescence, children have an enormous capacity to develop new movement skills. Beyond puberty, this development begins to slow, making it much more difficult to acquire new movement skills. If these skills are important for a new sport or training technique that you decide to take up in your late teens or adulthood, practice can become incredibly time-consuming and frustrating.

Exposing children to a wide range of different techniques and skills during their development is therefore imperative to identifying talent, maximizing potential and minimizing the risk of injury. For children who enjoy endurance running, this must involve being taught how to run with good technique, and this means that a significant amount of time should be spent working on (and making fun!) the drills highlighted in Chapter 12. Even more fundamental are the simple skills that underpin the running technique: squat, lunge, step-up, hop, land, push and pull. If a high level of technical competence is developed in these basic skills early in a runner’s career, the addition of load and complexity in movement becomes much easier to implement.

Stunted Growth?

Possibly the most common myth associated with strength training for children is that lifting weights causes damage to growth plates and influences the development of the skeleton. This theory was suggested decades ago, and despite dozens of scientific investigations demonstrating only positive effects on the immature skeleton, many still express concern. Similar to discussions in previous sections concerning the injury risk associated with lifting weights (in adults), any activity in which a poor technique is adopted, or training is progressed too quickly, is likely to result in injury. The loading that children experience when they run or play games at school is far higher than they experience when lifting weights with sound technique. Strength-training prescription should always be individualized to allow for optimal loading and recovery. For young runners, learning technique with broomsticks, medicine balls or light bars is appropriate. Lifting heavy loads is only appropriate for young athletes when they are technically and physically ready, which will usually be during their late teenage years.

Resistance Training is Safe and Effective for Young Runners

Due to the immaturity of the neuromuscular system in adolescents, it has also been questioned whether strength training is even beneficial for the young athlete. The 2013 international consensus statement on resistance training for youths published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine reviewed around fifty scientific studies that provide evidence that this mode of training is beneficial to physical development. Certainly measures of strength and power have been shown to improve at a faster rate as compared to normal development following a period of resistance training, but running-based performances also show superior improvements.

More importantly, the paper reported a very low injury rate across the studies that assessed the effect of resistance training on children. Only in isolated examples, where training sessions were unsupervised or an inappropriate training prescription was given, were injuries reported. There also appears to be a trend towards strength training lowering the risk of injury in the long term. Whether this is because children with higher levels of strength move better, or simply that they have more resilient tissues, is currently uncertain, but this observation provides further evidence that resistance training is beneficial.

Table 5a: S&C guidelines for coaches and parents of young runners

All strength-training sessions should be conducted under the supervision of a qualified coach

The priority of all S&C sessions should be on mastering technique in basic movement skills associated with resistance training, plyometrics and running drills

The technical exercise instructions and prescription recommended for beginners in Chapters 6 to 13 should be followed

Introduce load in the form of medicine balls, elastic bands and light bars once technique has been mastered with bodyweight

Use warm-ups to work on running technique and basic movement skills

S&C sessions should include a wide variety of movement skills and activities that are fun but challenging for the participants

Educate young runners on the importance of lifelong engagement with strength training and conditioning exercises for health, physical development and reduction of injury risk

Based upon current recommendations of best practice when coaching young athletes, Table 5a provides some simple guidelines for the coaches and parents of young endurance runners.

KEY INFORMATION

Resistance training is a safe, effective and fun activity for young runners of all ages to include in their programmes. Sessions should be supervised by a qualified coach, and focus on developing sound technique across a broad range of movement skills.

CHAPTER 6: RESISTANCE TRAINING

Hopefully the last chapter will have convinced you that many of the fears concerning resistance training for endurance runners are heavily based in myth and a lack of understanding. Usually when runners ask for guidance on their S&C, it is the weights room-based exercises that they are most anxious and unsure about. The aim of this chapter is to provide technical instructions for a set of basic exercises, suitable for runners of any age and experience, which form the basis for more challenging and explosive exercises.

Selecting resistance-training exercises that are based on the muscle groups or body parts runners mainly work is a poor strategy: this is what a gym goer looking to bulk up their muscles might do. The S&C coach will select strength-training exercises based predominantly on the movement patterns they exhibit, and in the case of conditioning exercises, the tissue or structure the exercise overloads. In this regard, resistance-training exercises are essentially just loaded variations of the fundamental movement skills that were identified in Chapter 4, and which formed part of your assessment battery. The exercises described in this chapter are simple enough to be loaded safely and effectively, but also possess many similarities to the running stride, so benefits are highly likely to transfer to performance.

KEY INFORMATION

The adaptations you will gain from resistance training provide numerous benefits to your running performance. These include: longer stride length, improved running economy, stronger bones and a faster sprint finish!

THE BENEFITS OF RESISTANCE TRAINING

Adaptation to resistance training | Definition | Benefit to running performance
Motor unit recruitment | Higher proportion of muscle fibres accessible to produce high forces | * Maximize your physiological potential * Longer stride, therefore better economy and fractional utilization * Improves sprint finish
Firing frequency | More rapid activation of muscle fibres to produce force quickly |
Co-ordination and control | Greater synergy between muscle groups required to contract and relax during movement | * Controlled and smooth technique reduces oxygen cost * Stability around important stabilizing and postural muscles reduces injury risk
Motor unit synchronization | Improved sequencing and activation of the most appropriate muscle fibres required for a task | * Preferential recruitment of slow-twitch (type 1) fibres during running which are more fatigue resistant
Musculotendinous stiffness | Increased thickness and density of tendon and attachment points resulting in a structure more capable of storing and returning elastic energy | * Increased reliance on stretch-shortening cycle for energy, resulting in less muscular work * Reduced injury risk to tendons
Neural disinhibition | Dampening of inhibitory responses from reflexes in muscle and tendon that prevent production of high force | * Enhanced ceiling of force production * Longer stride * Improves sprint finish
Anaerobic energy production | Improved ability to resynthesize ATP without oxygen present | * Quicker removal of fatigue-inducing waste products when running at high intensities
Bone mineral density | Enhanced resilience of structures within bones to loading | * Reduced injury risk to bones * Improved capacity to load bones repetitively

Table 6a: Key adaptations that result following a period of resistance training and the likely benefits to running performance.

Chapters 3 and 4 presented an integrated analysis of the physiology and biomechanics of endurance running and the implications for S&C. Table 6a links the discussion from these two chapters by presenting a summary of the main physiological adaptations that are likely to occur after a period of resistance training, and how this will have a positive impact upon running performance.

Table 6b: Summary of key scientific studies that have investigated the effect of adding resistance training to an endurance running programme

The benefits listed in Table 6a appear to be a reasonable theoretical justification for the inclusion of resistance-training exercises in your programme. But is there any direct evidence from scientific peer-reviewed literature that can confirm that there is a benefit to performance, compared to simply just running? Table 6b summarizes the findings from a number of scientific publications that have shown benefits to participants’ performance.

Using a single one of these scientific studies to inform our resistance-training prescription is fraught with limitations, because the findings from each are highly context specific. In other words, each study has used a slightly different population, from different training backgrounds, and adopted different protocols with their running and weight-training prescriptions. What worked very well for several participants in one study may actually be detrimental for a different runner. Therefore we must interpret findings with a degree of scepticism and caution.

Collectively, though, Table 6b shows that numerous scientific investigations have demonstrated benefits of resistance training for endurance runners with a variety of characteristics and in slightly different scenarios. As a result, we can therefore say with a fair degree of certainty that following a resistance-training programme for a period of eight to twelve weeks is highly likely to benefit endurance running performance compared to only running, especially if you have a decent background of training behind you. There is much less known about what happens to performance after a few months of resistance training, and exactly what type of prescription benefits a runner the most. This is where experience and intuition play a part, some of which is hopefully put across in Part 3 of this book.

KEY INFORMATION

Research has consistently shown that including 2-3 resistance training sessions each week for several months enhances endurance running performance.

RESISTANCE TRAINING GUIDELINES

It would be unrealistic and risky to attempt all the exercises described in this chapter in the first week of your S&C programme. Chapter 14 will provide some recommendations on how to prioritize and progress different types of exercise over the course of the training year. There are, however, a number of important considerations and guidelines that should be adhered to when performing resistance-training exercises.

Mastering Technique

Mastering technique should be the main priority in every exercise you perform. Loading up on exercises too soon, or simply ‘going through the motions’, is likely to result in a poor posture being adopted or an incorrect movement pattern, both of which risk injury and will result in sub-optimal adaptation. As you become more skilled at each exercise and your strength improves, the load you can handle on each exercise should increase. As you trickle the load up over time, ensure your technique doesn’t deviate from the technical models outlined in this chapter. In this regard, don’t be afraid to measure your progress initially by your ability to perform exercises with increasingly better form.

The typical errors in technique that are often exhibited are identified after the instructions for each exercise throughout this chapter. The reasons for each error are obviously difficult to identify and are likely to vary for each person, but the most common causes are described. Most important, however, is how these errors can be corrected, so that repetitive poor movement doesn’t lead to an injury, and the benefits from each exercise can be maximized. Ideally a qualified S&C coach would be present initially to correct movement. As this is unlikely to be the case, minor adjustments to each exercise are suggested, which are designed to tweak how the exercise is executed to directly address the error. Constraining movement during an exercise, or altering the conditions under which it is performed, is the preferred strategy to correct movement errors, as compared to simply reiterating instructions.

Work through a Full Range of Movement

In conjunction with the point above, it is important that you execute each exercise through a full range of movement. Performing resistance-training exercises through full range is beneficial for the following reasons:

* | Working through partial ranges results in weakness to areas of joints and muscles that already exhibit natural weakness. Exacerbating this discrepancy is likely to increase injury risk
* | Greater ranges of movement have been shown to recruit a greater number of motor units, as a greater proportion of muscle fibres are involved at extremes of range
* | Connective tissue (tendons and ligaments) comes under more strain at the end of its range. So although lifting through a partial range may enable you to lift more load, important structures are not stressed sufficiently
* | If you cheat by chopping the range, it is likely that you’ll soon be ignoring other important aspects of technique!

KEY INFORMATION

During resistance training sessions, the focus should always be on developing good technique on each exercise. This should include a full range of movement, which strengthens muscles and connective tissue to a greater extent.

Executing resistance training through a full range should be the ultimate aim on most exercises. There are, however, some exceptions where the risk outweighs the benefit, such as squatting through wide ranges when you are unable to maintain a neutral spine position. In this regard, it is appropriate to measure your progress in many of the exercises described in this chapter by the additional range of movement with which you are challenging yourself. Ways and means of achieving this, and of overcoming restrictions in range, are highlighted for each exercise. It should also be noted that some conditioning exercises (Chapters 8 to 11) and most plyometrics exercises are best completed through partial ranges or in static positions in order to gain the desired benefits.

Repetitions

Table 6c: Prescription for resistance-training exercises.

The prescription of resistance training should be a reflection of the physiological outcome you wish to target and the stage of strength development you are currently at. Table 6c provides a summary of the outcomes you will need to target at various stages of your development and at different times of the training year. It is logical to assume that to improve at endurance running, performing resistance-training exercises in high repetition volumes is the best strategy. This myth was addressed in Chapter 5, and is a frequent mistake many endurance runners make when performing resistance training. The exercises described in this chapter simply aren’t suitable to perform in the volumes required to be considered ‘endurance’. If you are running frequently anyway, why try to make an exercise that is inherently unspecific replicate what you are already doing lots of?! The overriding purpose of resistance training is to enhance strength-related qualities: if you recognize that improving this aspect of your physiology will benefit your running, then keep to what resistance training should be used for.

With this in mind, there is no real additional strength advantage to be gained from working in high repetition ranges. If you are new to S&C, you will need a period of time to acquire new movement skills, which require practice. Between eight and twelve repetitions on new exercises for a period of a month or two should be a sufficient volume: this will allow you to practise your technique whilst keeping movement quality high. Equally, performing multiple sets of eight to twelve repetitions ensures overload through a movement pattern, and allows additional practice of the skill. Increases in the load that can be lifted on exercises should come fairly rapidly when you first start a resistance-training programme; these can be mainly attributed to improvements in nervous system coordination, or simply your ability to express force through a new movement skill.

Once technique in the exercises improves and becomes more consistent, strength is best developed at lower repetition ranges. Sets of around five or six repetitions are often used to develop ‘basic strength’, and for the moderately strength-trained runner, this is a suitable range to be working at for bilateral exercises. This number of repetitions per set is suitable for developing strength (due to the relatively high load that can be utilized), and also to enhance structural adaptations such as strength of bones and tendons. This is because unlike the nervous system, structures such as bones and tendons not only require a minimal strain from an external load, but also some extended time under tension that can be delivered through repetitive loading.

Lower repetition ranges (one to four reps) certainly offer a greater strength challenge and so develop ‘maximum strength’, but to promote some of the other adaptations (see Table 6a) simultaneously, five to six reps is a nice middle ground to work in. However, using very heavy loads and therefore lower repetitions (one to four reps) also brings with it a higher level of risk, especially if your technique isn’t sound. Only experienced runners who are highly familiar with, and well versed in these exercises, should therefore use this range.

A repetition range of six to eight is also usually suitable for most single leg or unilateral exercises. Due to the differences in body position and muscle recruitment patterns, unilateral exercises are not well suited to producing high levels of force, so there is less need to use them for this purpose. Typically, if a heavy load is used on unilateral exercises where the non-working leg is providing an element of support, the contribution from this leg inevitably increases. This defies the purpose of the exercise by making it more bilateral in nature. Therefore a moderate load should be used and the focus placed upon directing and controlling force with good technique from a single leg stance position.

KEY INFORMATION

Repetition ranges of 8-12 are suitable for learning technique and improving strength in runners new to resistance training. After a few months, a heavier load can be used and fewer repetitions (5-7 reps) should be prescribed on each set.

When performing conditioning exercises (Part 3) to lower the risk of injury, a different repetition and loading strategy is recommended. Higher repetition ranges (more than twelve) offer benefits in terms of specific muscle activation, improving capacity and tolerance of tissues to repetitive loading. Due to the focused nature of the movements that are used to achieve this, high load-low repetition regimes are less appropriate.

Sets on Each Exercise

Performing three sets on each exercise has traditionally been the standard prescription for resistance training. This is supported by some research showing three sets to be superior to more or less sets, but this only appears to be true if applied to a novice lifter who isn’t performing sets to repetition failure. There is also some evidence that suggests that once failure on a set has been reached, there is little benefit to be gained by performing additional sets. Again, this appears to be partly true for less strength-trained individuals, but once you have several months of experience under your belt, increasing the number of sets is one way to drive further improvements in strength. Certainly an argument for limiting the number of sets to five is that each exercise will be developing strength in that specific movement pattern. As each exercise offers a slightly different benefit in terms of muscle recruitment and co-ordination, it makes sense to place stress on one skill, and then to move on to a different exercise. Plus it gets boring doing one exercise all session!

KEY INFORMATION

Use three sets per exercise if you are new to resistance training. As your experience and strength improves you should use 3-5 sets on key exercises.

Intensity (Load)

Most textbooks on strength training will recommend that you lift a load that is calculated as a percentage of the maximum weight you can lift on that exercise (known as your ‘one repetition maximum’ or 1RM). For strength-trained individuals, this is a good strategy to use and ensures that you are accurately determining the load that is suitable to elicit a specific adaptation. However, for many individuals who are new to resistance training, 1RM testing is inappropriate and unsafe, as highlighted in Chapter 4. It is also important to mention that for many of the exercises described in this chapter, 1RM testing is unsuitable, therefore a different strategy for quantifying intensity must be adopted.

KEY INFORMATION

When you first start lifting weights, work at an intensity that is challenging but allows you to lift with correct technique. A perceived exertion of 7 or 8 out of 10 (with 10 being maximum) is about right. For those more experienced at lifting weights, calculate appropriate loads as a percentage of the maximum weight you can lift.

If your principal outcome is to become more skilled at each exercise, load becomes a secondary consideration. You will find it difficult to maintain posture and sound technique if you apply too much weight to a bar. Using a repetition range of eight to twelve, you should work at a load that feels fatiguing but does not allow form to deteriorate. A useful approach is to use a ‘rating of perceived exertion’ (RPE) scale, where the difficulty of each set is given a score on a scale of one to ten. A score of one means you are able to perform dozens of repetitions, while a rating of ten implies that you are not able to lift the weight on the final repetition without technique breaking down. If your outcome is associated with ‘learning movement’ or ‘basic strength’, you should be aiming to hit a seven or eight out of ten on each set. It should feel hard but manageable to lift the weight, and you could push out a couple more repetitions if required.

For the experienced runner who is more accustomed to lifting weights, a 1RM test is an appropriate means of calculating the load they should be working at. During periods where basic strength is the objective, a load of between 70–85 per cent of 1RM should be used. For maximum strength cycles, loads in excess of 85 per cent of 1RM are appropriate.

Recovery between Sets

The objective of a training session should also dictate the recovery you take between sets. As the principal objectives for resistance-training sessions are related to improving strength, the emphasis should be placed upon quality. Again, avoid falling into the trap of thinking that endurance running is continuous in nature therefore recoveries should be kept very short. Lifting weights is not running, so keep to a format of training that will allow you to maximize the benefits of resistance training.

With quality as the priority, recovery times should be long enough to allow maintenance of proper form across sets, without having to reduce the load lifted. A period of around three minutes has generally been shown to allow sufficient recovery in the metabolic (phosphocreatine energy system) and nervous systems to achieve this, although this will depend upon several other factors. During maximum strength phases for example, the stress on the nervous system increases, which means recovery time may also need to be longer (3 to 5min). Equally, when performing explosive exercises, the aggression and intent required to move a weight quickly also fatigues the nervous system to a greater degree, therefore more recovery is required.

There is, however, a body of scientific evidence which shows that individuals from an endurance training background recover their energy (phosphocreatine) levels and clear waste products more rapidly than untrained individuals. As a result, if you already have a background in endurance running, you may feel adequately recovered to start the next set after 2min of rest. If you find yourself ready to go again before 2min, prioritize the work performed within each set by focusing on technique and increasing the load lifted, rather than simply rushing through your sets with even shorter rests.

Again, the prescription of recovery time for conditioning exercise routines, which generally involves targeting single joints or muscles to build tolerance to repetitive loading, will be different. Here, there are benefits to performing a series of exercises (often arranged in a circuit format) with minimal recovery that often target the same area of the body in different ways. When specific conditioning exercises are incorporated at the end of a resistance training session, it is often time-efficient to pair exercises or perform three exercises as a ‘triset’ or mini circuit. As they are lower skill and less fatiguing to our physiological systems, there is less risk of injury or loss of quality.

KEY INFORMATION

Even though you might recover quickly between sets, ensure you take 2-3 minutes rest. This will minimize the impact of fatigue on each set, so you can produce high quality movement and add additional load.

Tempo of Movement

Whilst performing each exercise, it is important to consider speed of movement during the downward (eccentric) and upward (concentric) phases. Tempo is a variable that can be carefully manipulated to drive different responses to an exercise, particularly for the more advanced gym goer. However, for an endurance runner performing resistance-training exercises, the rules should be kept simple.

For bilateral and unilateral strength-training exercises, the downward phase should always be relatively slow and controlled. Descending rapidly into a wide range of movement under load carries a high risk of injury, as muscles and structures around joints are at their weakest point. Having to decelerate a rapid movement or bounce out of a deep position is likely to cause excessive damage to muscle fibres and connective tissue.

As described previously, lengthening a muscle rapidly by descending quickly on an exercise is also likely to elicit a stretch-shortening cycle. This is exactly what happens when we run, and a quality we need to develop, so surely this is a good thing to replicate in the gym? The issue is that the stretch-shortening cycle isn’t elicited at the same range of movement and doesn’t rely on stored elastic energy from the Achilles tendon. So bouncing out of the bottom position of a squat will certainly help you to stand up in the upward phase of the exercise, but this doesn’t use the same joint angles as running, so the movement has little carry-over. The added weight used in resistance training also means the stretch-shortening cycle is much longer than the plyometric action seen in running, therefore any stored elastic energy is quickly dissipated and not used effectively.

Coaches will often refer to quick descents and bouncing out of positions as cheating or ‘no lifts’. This is because the stretch-shortening cycle takes over as the quality being used to move the weight, rather than the ability to activate motor units in the nervous system to move the load. Therefore, if you are lifting a weight and moving through full range, use the exercise for its primary purpose: to improve motor unit recruitment and therefore strength. The final reason for controlling a weight down slowly is that it ensures technique and posture are correct. Moving into a wide range of movement under load, which is likely to feel uncomfortable and restricted anyway, will more than likely pull you out of a safe posture if performed at speed.

For some of the explosive strength exercises described, where the load moved is lighter and the range of movement exhibited is less, a rapid downward phase and change of direction is more appropriate and encouraged. As joint angles are more akin to the running technique, and the main goal is rapid generation of force, a contribution from the stretch-shortening cycle to the upward phase is beneficial and a natural means of harnessing explosive power.

The upward phase of all resistance-training exercises should be performed as rapidly as possible, whilst maintaining correct technique. As the objective of bilateral strength-training exercises is enhancement of motor unit recruitment, this will only be achieved if there is intent to move the weight quickly. Performing the upward phase slowly increases the time the muscle spends under tension. This shifts the overload to the muscles, rather than activating the nervous system. In terms of transfer to running performance, the expression of high forces against the ground is derived from the force delivered from rapid (not slow) extension at the knee and hip in particular.

KEY INFORMATION

The downward phase of resistance training exercises should be performed relatively slowly and under control. The accent phase should always be performed explosively with intent to move the load quickly.

Resistance-training programmes can also detail tempo at two other phases of an exercise: the top and bottom positions. It is therefore possible to attach a duration to these static positions as part of a tempo prescription. For the purposes of gaining strength qualities from the nervous system, and particularly for beginners, this level of detail is unnecessary and gives you too much to think about. So simply focusing on a controlled descent and rapid ascent will suffice.

GENERAL STRENGTH TRAINING

In order to enhance strength, it is briefly worth revisiting the definition of ‘strength’ from the opening chapter of this book. Strength is loosely defined as the maximum amount of force that a muscle group can produce under specific conditions. Therefore, if we wish to teach the body to produce more force (and therefore become stronger), we need to find a position to allow it to do this most effectively. The ability to produce a high level of force is mainly dependent upon our nervous system recruiting the largest pool of motor units possible for a given task (see Table 6a). Therefore the more muscle groups that we can utilize to do this through similar movement patterns to running, the more our neuromuscular system will be overloaded, and the greater the likelihood of transfer to running performance.

KEY INFORMATION

To improve strength you should perform exercises using a position and movement pattern that allows you to develop the highest levels of force. This is on two feet using triple extension. Triple extension means to extend at the ankle, knee and hip simultaneously (like when jumping or squatting).

The best exercises to select to achieve this outcome are therefore bilateral in nature and involve a ‘triple extension’ pattern. Being on two feet (in a bilateral stance) provides a stable base from which to produce force, and therefore allows us to activate the central nervous system to the greatest extent. Using a triple extension pattern means we must rely on the muscles that extend our ankles, knees and hips simultaneously, which recruits a high number of muscle fibres around all three joints. Importantly, this is also the same movement pattern used when applying force to the ground during running.

There are some strength-training exercises that have an ankle–knee bias in terms of where most range of movement is obtained. Others have a hip dominance, meaning the gluteals and hamstrings are recruited to a greater extent than muscles that extend the knee and ankle. For runners, a selection of exercises that are mainly hip-dominant triple extension patterns are recommended for the reasons addressed in Chapter 3. The more powerful the gluteal muscles in particular are made, the more quickly that improvements in performance are likely to be seen.

Basic Exercise | Progression
Goblet squat | Back squat
Romanian deadlift | Deadlift
Glute bridge | Hip thrust

Table 6d: Bilateral resistance-training exercises to improve strength.

Table 6d provides three start points for strength-training exercises for the absolute beginner, or if a poor set of scores were achieved during the fundamental movement assessments. If you do not have access to a gym or any resistance-training equipment, suitable alternative exercises that can be performed without any equipment are shown in italic font.

Squatting

Based upon the characteristics that we require to deliver strength gains, the exercise that best fulfils all of these is the squat. Often referred to as ‘the king of exercises’, the squat is a key exercise to master. The squat improves a whole host of important physical qualities simultaneously, not least strength through a triple extension pattern, but also posture and mobility. Mastering the squat should be a priority for all runners from day one of an S&C programme, and squatting should be included throughout the training year in different forms, for example goblet squats, to loaded back squats, to heavy back squats to squat jumps.

If you are new to S&C and struggled with the overhead squat in the assessments, it is best to use a simpler derivative for the first few weeks. There are several variations to pick from, but the goblet squat allows for a more balanced position to be achieved, whilst still allowing some progression in terms of load. If you managed the overhead squat well during your assessment, or if you have performed a loaded squat before, you should have few issues starting with the back squat exercise.

Goblet Squat

This can be performed at home.

Aims:

* | Introduction to the squat technique
* | To improve mobility and posture

Technique:

Fig. 6.1(i): Goblet squat start position.

Fig. 6.1(ii): Goblet squat bottom position (side view).

Fig. 6.1(iii): Goblet squat bottom position (front view).

See Figs 6.1(i), 6.1(ii) and 6.1(iii).

* | Place the feet slightly wider than hip width and turn the toes slightly outwards
* | Grasp an upturned kettlebell, dumbbell or weighty object with both hands across the upper chest
* | Prior to initiating movement, breathe in, tighten the trunk and lift the chest
* | Initiate descent by pushing the hips backwards and sitting through the heels
* | Push the knees outwards in line with the toes; trying to pull the feet apart might help
* | The back should remain in a neutral position with the chest and head up
* | Descend until the thighs break parallel to the ground, or until you cannot maintain a neutral back position
* | Stand up quickly by driving through the heels and leading with the chest
* | Breathe out as you achieve an erect stance

Prescription:

* | 3 x 12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with a 5–20kg kettlebell or dumbbell

Back Squat

Aim:

* | To improve lower limb strength, mobility and posture

Technique:

Fig. 6.2(i): Back squat start position.

Fig. 6.2(ii): Back squat bottom position (side view).

Fig. 6.2(iii): Back squat bottom position (front view).

See Figs 6.2(i), 6.2(ii) and 6.2(iii).

* | Position a barbell in a squat rack set to armpit height
* | Place the barbell across the upper back, gripping slightly wider than shoulder width
* | Place the feet slightly wider than hip width and turn the toes slightly outwards
* | Prior to initiating movement, breathe in, tighten the trunk and lift the chest
* | Initiate descent by pushing the hips backwards and sitting through the heels
* | Push the knees outwards in line with the toes. Trying to pull the feet apart might help
* | The back should remain in a neutral position with the chest and head up
* | Descend until the thighs break parallel to the ground or until you cannot maintain a neutral back position
* | Stand up quickly by driving through the heels and leading with the chest
* | Breathe out as you achieve an erect stance

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with 15–30kg barbell
* | Basic strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) at RPE of 7–8 or 70–85 per cent 1RM
* | Maximum strength: 3–5 x 1–4 repetitions (3–5min recovery) at RPE of 8–10 or 85–100 per cent 1RM

KEY INFORMATION

The squat should be a staple exercise in any runner’s resistance-training programme. For beginners the goblet squat is a suitable place to start and can be performed with a weighty object at home. Once technique is sound, move onto a back squat. Re-visit the ‘overhead squat’ in Chapter 4 to check for errors and ways to correct.

Typical Errors and Corrections

There are many different technical errors that you may encounter when squatting, and even more causes of these errors. Refer to the ‘typical errors’ identified for the ‘overhead squat’ in Chapter 4 for common mistakes and suggestions to remedy them.

Deadlifting

The deadlift exercise simply involves lifting up a weight from the ground. Due to the start position of the bar, the exercise is more hip-dominant as compared to the squat, so is ideal for strengthening the gluteals and hamstrings. The range of movement is also less as compared to the squat, ultimately allowing a greater load to be lifted.

A simpler variation of the deadlift is the Romanian deadlift, which removes any contribution from the knees so that the overall distance the bar has to travel is shorter. The Romanian deadlift still provides the main benefits of full deadlifting, but is a simpler skill to learn first.

Romanian Deadlift

Aims:

* | To learn the skill of hip hingeing effectively
* | To strengthen the hip extensors (gluteals and hamstrings)
* | To improve posture and lower back strength

Technique:

Fig. 6.3(i): Romanian deadlift start position.

Fig. 6.3(ii): Romanian deadlift bottom position.

See Figs 6.3(i) and 6.3(ii).

* | Grip a barbell slightly wider than shoulder width with an overhand grip
* | Lift the bar from the ground or a rack with a neutral back
* | Soften the knees slightly
* | Prior to initiating movement, breathe in, tighten the trunk and lift the chest
* | Flex at the hip by pushing the hips backwards with the back remaining neutral
* | Lower the bar until it touches the kneecap
* | Return to standing by pushing the hips forwards
* | The bar should remain in contact with the thighs throughout the movement

Prescription:

* | 3 x 12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with 15–20kg barbell

Typical Errors and Corrections

Flexion through the back

Fig. 6.3(iii): Romanian deadlift flexion through back error.

See Fig. 6.3(iii). This is the most common error when performing deadlifting type movements. As the hip extensor muscles are so strong, there is a large challenge to posture and the spinal extensors to hold a neutral back position. This is part of the benefit of the exercise.

If you cannot maintain a neutral back position when practising with bodyweight, the issue is simply that you haven’t yet learnt the skill of hip hingeing. Refer to the corrective techniques provided for the arabesque in Chapter 4 under ‘Movement Screening Assessments’.

If you are just struggling to keep a straight back position as the weight gets heavier, the issue is that your postural muscles are not strong enough as compared to your gluteals and hamstrings. Lighten the weight by 5–10kg and place the focus on tightening the muscles in your back.

Excessive knee bend

Fig. 6.3(iv): Romanian deadlift excessive knee flexion error.

See Fig. 6.3(iv). This error is often exhibited in those new to hip hingeing exercises, who naturally want to drop into a squatting pattern when descending. Runners with excessively tight hamstrings will also struggle to flex at the hip, and will use a knee-bending strategy as a mechanism to achieve the range required. Chapter 4 deals with these issues in more detail in ‘Arabesque’ under the ‘Movement Screening Assessments’ section.

Deadlift

Aims:

* | To improve lower limb strength (gluteals in particular)
* | To improve posture and lower back strength

Technique:

Fig. 6.4(i): Deadlift start position.

Fig. 6.4(ii): Deadlift top position.

See Figs 6.4(i) and 6.4(ii).

* | Position the feet so the barbell is over the bottom eyelets of your shoes
* | Bend at the ankles, knees and hips with the feet flat on the floor
* | The shins should touch the bar, the shoulders should be slightly over the bar, and the hips should be higher than the knees
* | Grip the barbell slightly wider than shoulder width with an overhand grip
* | Tighten the lower back, lift the chest and pull the shoulder blades tight together
* | Prior to lifting the bar, breathe in, tighten the trunk and lift the chest
* | Stand up with the bar by extending at the knees, then the hips
* | Breathe out as an erect stance is achieved
* | Return the bar to the ground by performing a Romanian deadlift, then bending the knees

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with 30–40kg barbell
* | Basic strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) at RPE of 7–8 or 70–85 per cent 1RM
* | Maximum strength: 3–5 x 1–4 repetitions (3–5min recovery) at RPE of 8–10 or 85–100 per cent 1RM

Typical Errors and Corrections

Unable to achieve a neutral back position

Fig. 6.4(iii): Deadlift poor back position error.

See Fig. 6.4(iii). During the deadlift it is imperative that a neutral back position is achieved prior to initiating the lift. If you cannot achieve this position you risk injury if you attempt to lift a heavy weight repeatedly. The likely reasons for being unable to straighten your back are weakness in the back extensor muscles or a lack of mobility around the hips and/or calves.

A temporary solution is to perform the exercise from a position with the bar slightly raised from the ground. This will allow the safe completion of the exercise whilst still strengthening the back extensor muscles in an effective range. Over time, as your postural muscles become stronger, you should be able to lift from a position closer to the ground.

Performing a regular stretching and foam-rolling routine (see Chapter 13), especially around the hips and calf, is also likely to allow you to achieve the desired range from your legs and not your back.

‘Bum shove’ during initial movement

Fig. 6.4(iv): Deadlift ‘bum shove’ error.

See Fig. 6.4(iv). When the bar is initially lifted off the ground, some individuals will unintentionally shoot their hips into the air: this is known as ‘bum shoving the bar’. This leaves the lower back in a very vulnerable position, as forces acting perpendicular to the spine pose a high risk to weak structures. The cause of a ‘bum shove’ may simply be a poor level of skill, but is more likely due to weakness in the gluteals as they fail to hold the hips in position as the knees extend to initially lift the bar.

To correct this error, change the exercise so you only raise the bar to the knees before lowering it down again. Focus here on pushing the hips forwards early in the movement, as this will maintain your torso angle through the early part of the lift and help engage your gluteal muscles sooner. Ensure you are familiar with the exercise before you start increasing the weight, and slow your rate of progression if a bum shove begins to creep in.

Chest collapses or shoulder blades separate

Fig. 6.4(v): Deadlift chest collapse error.

See Fig. 6.4(v). It is not uncommon to see runners performing a deadlift who have strengthened their leg muscles and lower back sufficiently to lift a respectable load, but whose movement then starts to break down around the upper body. If the thoracic region of the spine collapses and/or the shoulders become rounded, this is a sign that the weight is too heavy for the postural muscles to cope with.

As part of your warm-up, incorporate some static holds in the start position, or raise the bar 1in off the ground and hold it there for 6–10sec. Placing a focus on squeezing the shoulder blades together tightly and lifting the chest proud in these static positions should help. If this doesn’t correct the error, then lighten the weight by 5–10kg and keep practising. Including some upper-body work is important for a runner, and pulling exercises in particular will help correct this error.

KEY INFORMATION

Romanian deadlifts and deadlifts from the ground are a fantastic way of strengthening lower back and gluteal muscles. Adopting a neutral back position throughout the movement is crucial to get the most from the exercise and avoid injury.

Bridges

These are home-based exercises: if you don’t have access to gym equipment, bridging alternatives are probably the best means of strengthening your lower limbs. These exercises are also useful for runners of any strength-training experience, as they can be loaded easily by holding a barbell across the hips, and are simpler than squats and deadlifts, so highly suitable for beginners.

The simplest bridging exercise that can be performed anywhere is the glute bridge. There are several progressions that can be used to overload the glute bridge, including a hip thrust, which is essentially the same exercise but performed with the shoulders supported by a bench or chair. Raising the shoulders in this way increases the range of movement, allowing more recruitment from the gluteal muscles. Although the range of movement the knee works through is similar during a glute bridge and hip thrust, the region of the quadriceps and hamstrings stressed is very different due to the change in shin angle. Therefore there is value in both exercises. If you don’t have access to any free weights (barbell or dumbbells) you can also overload bridging exercises by holding objects across your hips.

Glute Bridge

Aim:

* | To strengthen the hip extensors (gluteals and hamstrings)

Technique:

Fig. 6.5(i): Glute bridge start position.

Fig. 6.5(ii): Glute bridge top position.

See Figs 6.5(i), and 6.5(ii).

* | Lie on your back with your arms across your chest
* | Position the feet hip width apart with the knees at a right-angle
* | Tighten all the muscles in your trunk and take a breath in
* | Push through your heels to extend your hips until there is a straight line from your knees to your shoulders
* | Breathe out at the top of the movement
* | Leading with the hips, lower your bum to the ground until it lightly touches

Progressions:

Fig. 6.5(iii): Single leg glute bridge progression.

* | Hip thrust (see below)
* | Hold a weight across your hips
* | Perform single leg: see Fig. 6.5(iii)

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight
* | Basic strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with barbell or weight held across the hips

Hip Thrust

Aim:

* | To improve lower limb strength (gluteals in particular)

Technique:

Fig. 6.6(i): Hip thrust start position.

Fig. 6.6(ii): Hip thrust bottom position.

See Figs 6.6(i), and 6.6(ii).

* | Support your upper back on a bench or chair with your arms across your chest
* | Position the feet hip-width apart with the knees at a right angle
* | There should be a straight line between your knees–hips–shoulders
* | Tighten all the muscles in your trunk and breathe in
* | Leading with the hips, lower your bum until it is just above the ground
* | Push through your heels to extend your hips until there is a straight line again between your knees–hips–shoulder
* | Breathe out at the top of the movement

Progressions:

Fig. 6.6(iii): Single hip thrust progression.

* | Hold a weight across your hips (as shown in the figures)
* | Perform a single hip thrust (see Fig. 6.6(iii))

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight only
* | Basic strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with a barbell or weight held across the hips

Typical Errors and Corrections

Hamstrings fatigue before gluteals

It is not uncommon in those new to resistance training to feel the hamstring muscles working much harder than the gluteal muscles during bridging exercises. Both muscle groups are involved with contracting during these exercises, but the gluteal muscles are far more capable of generating force and contributing towards the movement. It is therefore likely that if you feel a fatiguing sensation in your hamstrings, your glutes are much weaker relative to your hamstrings.

Fig. 6.7(i): Glute bridge with band resistance.

Place the focus on actively squeezing your bum throughout the whole movement, while keeping your hamstrings as relaxed as possible. If you have a theraband, place it around your knees and push out against it (see Fig. 6.7(i)); this should help recruit your glutes to a greater extent. Alternatively, get someone to push lightly against the outside of your knees during the exercise and focus on resisting against them.

Another useful suggestion is to raise the front part of your feet slightly with a thin plate or book, so you can only push upwards through your heels. This should shift the stress from the muscles that cross your knees (quadriceps and hamstrings) and place it more on your hip muscles (gluteals).

Hips don’t fully extend

Fig. 6.7(ii): Incomplete hip extension during glute bridge.

See Fig. 6.7(ii). If you struggle to reach a fully extended top position, when a straight line is achieved between knees–hips–shoulders, you are missing an important part of the movement range. Focus on aggressively pushing your hips up and through by squeezing your buttocks hard in the final part of each repetition. Another idea is to perform the exercise in a doorway with a piece of string secured tightly at knee height. Feeling your hips touch the marker at each repetition indicates that you have achieved full range.

KEY INFORMATION

Bridging exercises are an effective way to strengthen the gluteal and hamstring muscles without the need for expensive gym equipment. Single leg variations and holding objects across your hips allow you to progress the exercises easily.

UNILATERAL STRENGTH TRAINING

Unilateral (single-leg) exercises are equally as important as bilateral exercises. Due to their set-up, they challenge the body in a different manner and therefore provide overload to other strength-related qualities. When performing a single-leg exercise, the absolute level of force that can be generated is less compared to a bilateral equivalent, due to the narrow base of support and the amount of musculature involved. Therefore, to improve the ability of the central nervous system to generate high forces, bilateral exercises should be the preferred choice. However, unilateral exercises offer several important benefits that bilateral exercises can only provide to a lesser extent, as described below.

Bilateral Deficit

The main rationale for using unilateral exercises over bilateral exercises to improve strength is based around a phenomenon known as the ‘bilateral deficit’. Most individuals possess a bilateral deficit, which essentially means that the force generated by the right and left leg during a single-leg exercise is significantly higher compared to the force that each can generate during a bilateral exercise. So although the total force during a bilateral exercise almost always exceeds the force produced during a unilateral equivalent, the force that each leg is producing is higher during unilateral. This means that with unilateral exercises, more work is achieved per leg, so therefore more muscle fibres are recruited, which might lead to greater gains in strength during single-leg tasks.

Correcting Asymmetry

During your assessments, you may have noticed an imbalance (known as an asymmetry) between your right and left legs in terms of strength, mobility or control of movement. If you have a pronounced asymmetry it would be beneficial to follow a resistance-training programme that has a unilateral bias, in an attempt to strengthen the weaker side. This will reduce the likelihood of compensatory movements and therefore lower the risk of injury.

Inter-muscular Co-ordination

The logical argument for including unilateral exercises in a runner’s resistance training programme is that they carry a higher level of ‘specificity’. During running, force is generated with one leg at a time, so surely it makes sense to overload right and left sides separately in a similar way? This carries some truth, but as explained in the last chapter, it is easy to fall into a ‘specificity trap’ of programming simply by trying to replicate the running stride. Unilateral exercises potentially offer a greater level of transfer in terms of improving inter-muscular co-ordination (see Table 6a), which allows for better timing and activation of muscles involved in generating force off one leg. This is therefore likely to improve your ability to steer and control forces in a similar way to the running stride.

Balance and Control

Standing on one leg challenges balance to a greater extent as compared to standing on two, as it narrows our base of support. This forces muscles around joints to contract simultaneously (known as co-contraction), as the nervous system senses the increased stability challenge and prevents you falling over. This has a negative impact on your ability to generate high levels of force, but replicating this environment on some exercises is important as it teaches stabilizing muscles to activate and function more effectively when on one leg. If small stabilizing muscles can coordinate with the larger force generating muscles at the appropriate time, movement will feel more controlled and efficient. Equally, a disadvantage to performing solely bilateral exercises is that it can often mask weakness in these important stabilizing muscles that control limb positions in a single-leg stance.

KEY INFORMATION

Single-leg resistance training offers a number of important benefits that exercises on two feet cannot. Lunging and step-up exercises will develop high levels of strength on each leg, correct imbalance and challenge your stability.

Movement pattern | Basic exercise | Progression 1 | Progression 2
Lungeing Stepping Bridging | Split squat Step-up Single leg glute bridge | Elevated split squat High box step-up Single leg hip thrust | Reverse lunge Single leg squat

Table 6e: Unilateral strength-training exercises and associated progressions.

Table 6e provides a set of simple start points for unilateral resistance training. If you are new to resistance training, performing these simply with your own bodyweight is likely to provide a sufficient overload to develop your strength. Most are therefore suitable for runners who don’t have access to a gym or weight-training equipment. Having developed sound technique on the exercises listed in the first column, adding a light load by holding dumbbells in each hand or positioning a barbell across your upper back should be the first progression.

There are two main strands of unilateral exercises to consider including in a resistance-training programme: lungeing and stepping patterns. Lungeing patterns are relatively knee-dominant exercises as the torso remains quite upright, so are therefore good for developing strength and control around the knee using the quadriceps and hamstrings. Stepping patterns tend to have a greater hip emphasis, as there tends to be a greater degree of hip flexion, plus there is higher demand for frontal plane control. This means it is a greater challenge for the gluteals in terms of both force generation and movement control. Depending upon where your strengths and weaknesses lie, this provides a strong rationale for an emphasis to be placed on either lungeing or stepping patterns. The single-leg bridging exercises that were described in the last section have also been included here. These are particularly suitable if you lack access to a gym (see Figs 6.5(iii) and 6.6(iii)).

There are several strategies to progress each starting exercise in terms of movement complexity. The progressions listed across each row essentially place a gradually greater demand on the working leg.

Lungeing

The lunge exercise is an important fundamental movement skill to master, and should be incorporated into your training regularly, even if it is simply part of your warm-up routine. In order to learn the lunge movement pattern, there are a number of easier versions that demand less skill. These are also more suitable for adding load and therefore driving a strength adaptation.

Although the lunge movement pattern dictates that the knees (quadriceps) receive a high degree of overload as compared to the hips (gluteals), a greater emphasis can be placed on gluteal recruitment by ensuring the weight is through the rear of the front foot, and the front thigh breaks parallel to the ground.

Split Squat

Aim:

* | Development of unilateral lower limb strength and control (knee dominant)

Technique:

Fig. 6.8(i): Split squat start position.

Fig. 6.8(ii): Split squat bottom position.

Fig. 6.8(iii): Elevated split squat bottom position

See Figs 6.8(i), 6.8(ii) and 6.8(iii).

* | With both feet pointing forwards, take an exaggerated step so the rear heel is raised from the ground
* | Tighten all the muscles in your trunk, lift your chest and breathe in
* | Lower the hips towards the ground by bending both legs
* | Shift the weight towards the back part of the front foot
* | Keep the rear leg as relaxed as possible
* | Descend until the thigh of the front leg breaks parallel with the ground, and the knee of the rear foot is positioned just above the ground
* | Drive through the heel of the front foot to straighten the front leg and return to the start position
* | Breathe out as the knee straightens

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight only
* | Strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with barbell or dumbbells at RPE of 7–8

Progressions:

* | Add additional load by holding dumbbells or a barbell across the back (as shown in the figures)
* | Place the front foot on a plate or on a thick book so that the floor no longer blocks the back knee to limit the range of motion available
* | Place the rear foot on a low bench or chair (see Fig. 6.8(iii); Table 6e, progression 1); the higher you elevate the rear foot, the more emphasis you will place on the front working leg

Reverse Lunge

Aims:

* | Development of unilateral lower limb strength
* | Control at the hip

Technique:

Fig. 6.9(i): Reverse lunge start position.

Fig. 6.9(ii): Reverse lunge bottom position.

See Figs 6.9(i) and 6.9(ii).

* | With both feet pointing forward, tighten all the muscles in your trunk, lift your chest and breathe in
* | Take an exaggerated step backwards
* | As you step backwards, bend your leg and lower your hips towards the ground
* | The rear foot should land on the ball of the foot and the weight should shift to the rear of the front foot
* | Continue to lower the hips until the thigh of the front leg breaks parallel with the ground and the knee of the rear foot is positioned just above the ground
* | Drive through the heel of the front foot (and relax the rear leg) to return to a standing position
* | Breathe out as an erect stance is achieved

KEY INFORMATION

Split squats are a simple and easy exercise to master, providing a single-leg strength stimulus to the knee and hip muscles. Elevating the rear leg makes the exercise more challenging and single leg focused.

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight only
* | Strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with a barbell or dumbbells at RPE of 7–8

Progressions:

* | Place the front foot on a plate or thick book so the floor no longer blocks the back knee to limit the range of motion available
* | If space permits, perform a loaded walking lunge

Typical Errors and Corrections

The typical mistakes that are exhibited during the split squat and lungeing patterns of movement were described in Chapter 4 for the ‘walking lunge’ movement screen assessment.

Stepping

Stepping exercises are popular with runners, probably due to the fact that they bear such a close resemblance to the running action. Compared to lungeing derivatives, stepping exercises tend to be more hip (gluteal) dominant, due to the angle of the torso relative to the thigh, and the additional demand on frontal plane control created by the narrower base of support.

The stepping series of exercises listed in Table 6e aims to progress you towards the most challenging and the purest of all unilateral exercises, the single-leg squat. Initially you should aim to develop strength and control using supported versions of the single-leg squat, namely a dead-leg step-up from a low box. Once this can be executed strictly through a good range (using a high box), you are ready to attempt the single-leg squat. The exercise that many practitioners may call a ‘lateral box step-up’ is the preferred style for a step-up. If approaching from the front, the free leg is in danger of clipping the edge of a box/chair: this is somewhat of a safety and technical concern that can be easily overcome with the lateral version.

There are several other versions of stepping and single-leg squatting exercises not included in this book, but these are mainly used for the development of explosive strength, only once the basics have been mastered. The explosive low box step-up, which closely resembles the running stride, differs in technical execution compared to the strength version described below.

Step-up

Aim:

* | Development of lower limb unilateral strength and control (hip dominant)

Technique:

Fig. 6.10(i): Step-up bottom position.

Fig. 6.10(ii): Step-up top position.

Fig. 6.10(iii): Step-up bottom position (front view).

See Figs 6.10(i), 6.10(ii) and 6.10(iii).

* | Place one foot on the edge of a box or step approximately 30cm (12in) in height
* | Place the toes of the opposite foot in line with the heel of the other
* | Tighten all the muscles in your trunk, lift your chest and breathe in
* | Drive through the heel of the front foot on the box until the leg is fully extended
* | Breathe out as an erect stance is achieved
* | Keep your outside leg completely straight (dead leg) through the upward phase
* | Initiate descent by pushing the hips backwards and sitting through the heels
* | Descend to the ground in a controlled manner until the outside foot touches the heel first
* | During both the ascent and descent phases, ensure that the ankle–knee–hip stays aligned and that the back is in a neutral position

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight only
* | Strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with a barbell or dumbbells at RPE of 7–8

Progressions:

* | Add additional load by holding dumbbells or a barbell across the back
* | Raise the height of the box/chair (30–60cm) so that the thigh is breaking parallel to the ground (high box step-up)

Single-Leg Squat

Aim:

* | Development of lower limb unilateral strength and control (hip dominant)

Technique:

Fig. 6.11: Single leg squat bottom position.

See Fig. 6.11.

* | Place one foot on the edge of a low box or step approximately 30cm (12in) in height
* | Stand on the box so one leg is hanging free
* | Tighten all the muscles in your trunk, lift your chest and breathe in
* | Initiate your descent by pushing the hips backwards and sitting through the heels
* | Descend until the thigh breaks parallel to the ground with the free leg pulled forwards
* | To ascend, drive through the heel until the leg is fully extended
* | Breathe out as an erect stance is achieved
* | During both the descent and ascent phases, ensure that the ankle-knee-hip stays aligned and that the back is in a neutral position

Prescription:

* | Strength: 3 x 1–8 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight at RPE of 7–8

Progressions:

* | Perform from a single-leg stance position on the ground (known as a ‘piston squat’)
* | Add additional load by holding dumbbells or a barbell across the back

Typical Errors and Corrections

Supporting leg contributes to push-off

Fig. 6.12(i): Support leg contributes to push-off.

See Fig. 6.12(i). For the versions of stepping described here, the aim should be to perform the exercises with minimal contribution from the supporting or outside leg. In the early days of a resistance-training programme, even off a low box, you may find this challenging due to a lack of single-leg strength. If you cannot perform a step-up without a strict straight outside leg, you should not progress to a higher box and certainly not a single-leg squat, where there is no opportunity to push off a supporting leg.

To correct this error, keep your outside knee straight throughout the set by squeezing the muscles in your thigh hard and pulling your toes up tight to your shin. Perform as many repetitions as possible with the floating leg in this position.

Ankle–knee–hip misalignment

Fig. 6.12(ii): Ankle–knee–hip misalignment.

See Fig. 6.12(ii). As discussed in the previous sections, a misalignment between ankle, knee and hips (known as ‘knee valgus’) is potentially risky to ligamentous structures around your knee, so is an important error to address. A lack of mobility in the ankle or poor activation of glute stabilizers is the likely cause. If you are also fighting to keep your heel in contact with the step (see below), it is likely that you need to address calf mobility.

Following the technical instructions detailed above, lower the box height so you work through a smaller range. Alternatively, take the outside leg a foot-width further outwards so you push up and slightly across the body as you ascend. This should help drive your knee outwards and provide you with a slightly wider base of support to work from. In addition to these adjustments to the exercises within the session, ensure you also incorporate a session of glute activation exercises (see Chapter 11) into your S&C routine.

Heel lifts from box

Fig. 6.12(iii): Heel lifts from box error.

See Fig. 6.12(iii). With the free leg trailing slightly behind during step-ups, the demand for a high level of calf mobility is reduced. However, if you still struggle to keep your heel set down on the box during the downward phase, it is likely you are either lacking calf mobility or have a very knee-dominant movement pattern.

If calf mobility is an issue, alongside a programme of stretching and foam-rolling for the calf muscles, perform your step-ups with a thin disk or book underneath your heel. This should temporarily aid the range you can achieve around your calf and enhance the effectiveness of the exercise. Alternatively, holding a light plate (2–5kg) or light medicine ball at arm’s length in front of your body will act as a counterbalance to the hips and allow a greater range of movement to be achieved.

In addition, initiate the descent through your hips by sitting back and down. If it helps, position a high box or chair a foot-length behind the box, and aim to touch your bum to that.

KEY INFORMATION

Step-ups where the outside leg is kept completely uninvolved are a challenging single leg strength exercise. Start by stepping up onto a low box (30cm) and progress to a higher box (40-45cm). Make sure your floating leg remains straight and doesn’t contribute towards the step-up.

Poor posture

Fig. 6.12(iv): Poor posture error.

See Fig. 6.12(iv). Maintaining a neutral back position during high-box step-ups and single-leg squats is problematic as compared to bilateral exercises due to the fact that the ankles and hips can only achieve range of movement in one plane (sagittal). This means that any excessive tightness in the ankles or hips will cause the back to flex as a compensatory balance mechanism. In addition, during single-leg squatting, the free floating leg positioned in front of the body pulls the lumbar spine into flexion.

Positioning a broomstick or plastic training barbell across the upper back during stepping exercises and pulling down gently will help to activate the back extensor muscles and to maintain posture. If mobility is lacking, see the suggestions above for the ‘heel lifting from box’ error.

UPPER LIMB EXERCISES

Including upper body exercises in a resistance training programme for a runner may seem illogical and an inefficient use of time. It is, of course, unnecessary to include an excessive volume of resistance training for the upper limb, but dedicating some time to developing basic movement skill for the upper body is likely to contribute towards reducing the risk of injury and improving performance.

The function of the upper limb during the running stride was addressed in Chapter 3. Although the upper body contributes very little in terms of direct propulsion during running, it functions in a reciprocal manner with the legs to prevent unnecessary rotational forces through the trunk. Try sprinting without using your arms, and you’ll soon notice how difficult it is to maintain balance and speed! If strength improves in the lower body and more force can subsequently be generated against the ground during running, the torso and shoulder girdle need to be adequately conditioned to control the larger rotations that are produced. Additional strength for the upper body is therefore necessary, and is also likely to offset fatigue late in a race or training session.

The more important benefits of upper body training are perhaps less obvious. The importance of having good posture is emphasized across every exercise described in this book, and is crucial for improving running performance and lowering injury risk. The muscles that act on the shoulder girdle play an important role in maintaining a healthy posture, which reduces stress on other areas of the body and prevents compensatory movements. Conditioning the upper body is therefore likely to lower energy cost whilst running, and to improve running economy.

Movement pattern | Exercise | Progression | Alternative progression
Pushing Pulling | Press-up Inverted row | Dips Pull-ups | Overhead press Bent-over row

Table 6f: Upper limb resistance training exercises and recommended progressions.

Table 6f shows some suitable start points for conditioning the upper body. Only the alternative progressions shown in the right-hand column require the use of free weights (barbell or dumbbells); the other exercises can be performed with minimal equipment. Otherwise they are simply separated into pushing exercises that mainly use the pectorals, triceps and anterior deltoids, and pulling exercises that recruit muscles in the upper back and the biceps. There are numerous upper limb exercises that you may consider gymnastics skills, and it is recommended that these be used as much as possible. By avoiding exercises on benches, and certainly resistance machines, a greater level of stability in the lower limb and postural muscles is required.

As with the lower body exercises, the gymnastic-based upper limb exercises that are advocated are ‘whole body’ movements requiring stabilization from other areas of the body. This means they are more functional to the outcome that you are targeting, so achieving transfers to performance are much more likely. The pushing exercises mainly require stabilization from anterior (or front-sided) muscles such as the quadriceps and abdominals, whereas the pulling exercises have a posterior (or rear-sided) dominant stability requirement involving the spinal extensor muscles, gluteals and hamstrings. In this regard, it is important to retain balance in your upper body exercise prescription. If you scored poorly in the press-up benchmarking test it is likely that you’ll benefit from both pulling and pushing exercises in your programme. However, there is also an argument to biasing selection towards your own requirements to some extent. For example, if you scored well on the press-up test but struggle to perform a single chin-up, you should include a greater number of pulling exercises as compared to pushing ones.

KEY INFORMATION

Including some upper body exercises is important for an endurance runner. Developing strength in the arms, chest and back helps to control unnecessary rotations during running and improves posture.

Instead of providing guidance on progressions, which is unnecessary given the small number of upper limb exercises that a runner should use, the rows in Table 6f list ‘alternative progressions’. These progressions challenge the muscles in a different way by utilizing a similar movement pattern, but in an alternative plane of motion. They can be performed with either dumbbells or barbells, though bear in mind that dumbbells create higher demands on joint stability, so consequently force production tends to be lower. The bent-over row exercise should be avoided if you are not skilled at the Romanian deadlift exercise detailed in the lower body section.

PUSHING MOVEMENTS

Press-ups

Aims:

* | Development of upper body pushing strength (chest dominant)
* | To improve trunk stability (abdominal dominant)

Technique:

Refer to the ‘Capacity Tests’ section of Chapter 4 for instructions and visual examples of the press-up technique.

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight alone
* | Strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with an additional load at RPE of 7–8

Progression:

* | Place a weighted plate (start with 10kg) or heavy object across your mid-back

Dips

Aim:

* | Development of upper body pushing strength (arm dominant)

Technique:

Fig. 6.13(i): Start position of a dip.

Fig. 6.13(ii): Bottom position of a dip.

See Figs 6.13(i), and 6.13(ii).

* | Place your hands on the edge of a chair or bench
* | Position the feet directly in front of you with the legs straight
* | Support your own bodyweight with the elbows extended
* | Tighten the abdominals, pull the chest up, and take a breath in
* | Initiate your descent by breaking the elbows backwards and slightly outwards
* | Lower the hips downwards until the elbows reach just beyond 90 degrees
* | Push against the chair to return to the start position
* | Breathe out as the elbows straighten

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight only
* | Strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with an additional load at RPE of 7–8

Progressions:

Fig. 6.13(iii): Parallel bar dip progression.

* | Place a weighted plate or heavy object across your thighs
* | Parallel bar dips (see Fig. 6.13(iii))

Overhead pressing

Aim:

* | Development of upper body pushing strength (shoulder dominant)

Technique:

Fig. 6.14(i): Start position of an overhead press.

Fig. 6.14(ii): Top position of an overhead press.

See Figs 6.14(i) and 6.14(ii).

* | In a standing position, hold a barbell or dumbbells slightly wider than shoulder-width apart
* | Position the barbell/dumbbells at shoulder height with the elbows tucked close to the body
* | Tighten the trunk muscles, retract your chin, and take a breath in
* | Push the weight directly overhead until the elbows straighten
* | As the weight passes overhead, push the chest up and out so the barbell/dumbbells finish over the crown of the head
* | Lower the weight down to the start position by leading with the elbows so they remain close to the body

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with a light barbell or dumbbells
* | Basic strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) at RPE of 7–8 or 70–85 per cent 1RM
* | Maximum strength: 3–5 x 1–4 repetitions (3–5min recovery) at RPE of 8–10 or 85–100 per cent 1RM

Progression:

* | Increase load
* | Handstand press-up

Typical Errors and Corrections

Elbows flare out

6.15(i): Elbows flare out error (during press-up).

See Fig. 6.15(i). This is the most common error during any type of pressing movement. Flaring the elbows out during pressing exercises places the shoulder joint in an internally rotated position. This is potentially damaging to connective tissue and bursas around both the shoulder and elbow. Keeping the elbows tighter to the body during pressing encourages a more externally rotated position in the joint, thereby protecting the shoulder from injury.

Typically those with a poor back posture will have an internally rotated position at the shoulder; therefore any movements that encourage this position should be avoided. Those new to resistance training, or with weakness in their upper body, are likely to flare their elbows, which recruits the deltoid muscles in the shoulder to a greater extent than the pectorals or triceps. To develop a more balanced recruitment pattern, remove excessive stress on the shoulder and develop the pectoral muscles; the elbows should track close (but not parallel) to the torso.

If you have access to a resistance band or stiff theraband, wrap it round your elbows in the start position so it is taut. As you perform the exercise, the band should encourage you to keep your elbows closer together.

Turning your hands slightly outwards when performing press-up and dips will facilitate a greater degree of external rotation at the shoulder. Attempting to pull the bar, bench or ground apart as you complete each repetition will also help.

If keeping your elbows close to your body means the movement becomes too difficult, don’t be afraid to regress the exercise. Drop your press-up start position to your knees, bring your feet closer to your body to perform dips, or lighten the load on your overhead pressing.

Lacking range of movement

A restricted range of movement is likely to be caused by a lack of strength in the upper body, and occurs on the press-up and dip exercises. To work through a wider range using a load that is appropriate for you, the length of the lever needs to be reduced. This will lower the percentage of your bodyweight that you are required to move.

When performing a press-up, work from your knees (as opposed to your feet), and continue to shuffle your knees closer to your chest to make it even easier. To make dips easier, work off a bench or chair and bring your feet closer to your body by flexing your knees. These variations should allow you to work through the range described in each set of instructions. When pressing overhead, ensure the dumbbells or barbell is sufficiently light to allow you to press from the upper chest to overhead.

Head leads movement

Fig. 6.15(ii): Chin poke error (during press-up).

See Fig. 6.15(ii): this error is known as ‘chin poke’. Particularly during press-ups, many individuals will push their head forward from their shoulders in a subconscious attempt to reduce the range of movement. During overhead pressing, in those who lack mobility through the thoracic region of their spine, the same chin-poke action can often be observed. When performing pressing exercises, prior to initiating movement, ensure that your chin is slightly retracted or tucked in. On press-ups, your chest should be about a fist height above the ground in the bottom position. Place a 1ltr water bottle directly below your chest to ensure you achieve the correct range. During overhead pressing, leave your chin tucked in and extend through your chest to get the bar over the crown of your head.

Lower back hyperextends

Fig. 6.15(iii): Lower back hyperextends error.

See Fig. 6.15(iii). The main trunk stabilizing muscles involved during pressing are the abdominals, and it is this muscle group that prevents the lower back from moving out of neutral into a vulnerable position of hyperextension. In those with poor thoracic mobility, the lower back will often hyperextend during pressing overhead to compensate for the lack of range. It is therefore important that during pressing exercises you initially find a neutral lower back position and subsequently tighten the abdominals to hold this posture. Perform the thoracic mobilizations detailed in Chapter 13, and include some overhead pressing with a light bar during every warm-up routine.

KEY INFORMATION

Press-ups and dips are ideal exercises to develop upper body pushing strength and can be performed with minimal equipment. Poor technique during pushing exercises is usually the result of weakness or poor mobility. Regress the exercises and focus on correct technique.

PULLING MOVEMENTS

Inverted Row

Aims:

* | Development of horizontal upper body pulling strength
* | To improve trunk stability (back extensor dominant)

Technique:

Fig. 6.16(i): Inverted row start position.

Fig. 6.16(ii): Inverted row top position.

See Figs 6.16(i) and 6.16(ii).

* | Secure a bar at a height so that when lying on your back with your shoulders in line with the bar, your fingertips can just reach
* | Place your heels against a heavy plate or object, and straighten your legs
* | Grasp the bar with a forward grip, slightly wider than shoulder width
* | Raise your hips until there is a straight line between shoulders–hips–knees
* | Tighten the trunk muscles, squeeze the glutes and take a breath in
* | Initiate ascent by breaking the elbows backwards and slightly outwards
* | Pull yourself up until your chest touches the bar and your shoulder blades squeeze together
* | Lower yourself down by extending your elbows until they fully straighten
* | Breathe out as the elbows straighten
* | Maintain shoulders–hips–knees alignment and neutral back throughout
* | Raise the height of the bar if you cannot achieve full range

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight only
* | Basic strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with additional load at RPE of 7–8

Progressions:

* | Place your feet on a low box (20–30cm)
* | Place a weighted plate or heavy object across your hips

Pull-ups

Aim:

* | Development of vertical upper body pulling strength

Technique:

Fig. 6.17(i): Pull-up start position.

Fig. 6.17(ii): Pull-up top position.

See Figs 6.17(i) and 6.17(ii).

* | Grip an overhead bar slightly wider than shoulder-width apart with the palms facing forwards
* | Hang from a bar with the elbows straight
* | Tighten the trunk muscles, squeeze the glutes and take a breath in
* | Pull yourself up until your chin passes the level of the bar
* | Lower yourself down under control until the elbows fully straighten
* | Breathe out as the elbows straighten
* | Avoid swinging throughout the movement
* | Use a long resistance band or assistance machine if you cannot achieve full range

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with bodyweight plus assistance
* | Basic strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) at RPE of 7–8 or 70–85 per cent 1RM
* | Maximum strength: 3–5 x 1–4 repetitions (3–5min recovery) at RPE of 8–10 or 85–100 per cent 1RM

Progression:

* | Add load to the movement with a weighted belt or rucksack

Bent-over Row

Aims:

* | Development of horizontal upper body pulling strength
* | Lower back extensor strength

Technique:

Fig. 6.18(i): Bent-over row start position.

Fig. 6.18(ii): Bent-over row top position.

See Figs 6.18(i) and 6.18(ii).

* | In a standing position, grasp a barbell slightly wider than shoulder width, or hold dumbbells
* | Perform a Romanian deadlift: flex at the hips by pushing your hips directly backwards, keeping your lower back neutral
* | As you bend over, slide the bar down your thighs until it reaches the kneecap
* | Bend your knees slightly if this is more comfortable
* | Maintain a neutral back position and take a breath in
* | Initiate the upward phase by breaking the elbows backwards and slightly outwards
* | Pull the barbell/dumbbells up until touching the lower chest; squeeze the shoulder blades together
* | Lower the barbell/dumbbells by extending your elbows until they fully straighten
* | Breathe out as the elbows straighten

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with 15-20kg barbell or dumbells
* | Basic strength: 3 x 5–7 repetitions (2–3min recovery) at RPE of 7–8 or 70–85 per cent 1RM

Progression:

* | Increase load

Typical Errors and Corrections

Hips sag or hyperextend during inverted rows

Fig. 6.19(i): Hips sag error during inverted row.

Fig. 6.19(ii): Back hyperextends error during inverted row.

See Figs 6.19(i) and 6.19(ii). Similar to the press-up, the inverted row requires a large amount of trunk and lower limb involvement to maintain good posture. A lack of engagement in the gluteals and lower back will cause the hips to sag. In the start position, with the elbows extended, raise your hips by squeezing the glutes and lower back so there is a straight line from the shoulders to the knees. Place a broomstick along this line and make sure your chest, hips and thighs remain in contact throughout the entire set.

To make up for an upper body strength deficiency, some individuals over-extend their lower back in an effort to hitch up their hips and reach the bar sooner. Avoid cheating your way to the bar by again checking shoulder–hip–knee alignment using the broomstick as a marker.

Swinging (‘kipping’) pull-ups

The ‘kipping pull-up’ is a popular but risky version of a conventional pull-up that potentially compromises shoulder and lower back health. In the start position of the exercise the technique involves swinging the legs back and the hips forwards to gain sufficient momentum to bounce yourself up to the bar. The main issue with this style is that it places the shoulder joint into extreme internal rotation and the lower back into hyperextension. Under high eccentric load this is potentially damaging to the tissues around these joints and therefore risks injury. Although there is benefit from involving the trunk and lower limb in a stabilizing capacity during upper body training, swinging pull-ups remove almost all contribution from the upper limb.

To eliminate the risk of performing swinging pull-ups, hang still for a second or two in the start position before commencing each rep, to ensure that your body is static.

Poor back position during bent-over row

Fig. 6.19(iii): Poor back position error during bent-over row.

See Fig. 6.19(iii). When performing the bent-over row, there is a high demand on the lower back extensors to maintain good posture against bodyweight and the external load. It is therefore not surprising that individuals with poorly conditioned trunk muscles struggle to hold their back position during this exercise.

To some extent, flexing the knees slightly will alleviate some of the tension on the lower back, but it is advised to reduce the weight you lift if a neutral back position cannot be maintained throughout the whole set. If the back extensor muscles fatigue before the upper body at a light load, it is advisable to spend more time on the Romanian deadlift exercise before reintroducing the bent-over row at a later date.

Insufficient hip flexion during bent-over row

Fig. 6.19(iv): Insufficient hip flexion error during bent-over row.

See Fig. 6.19(iv). Due to the uncomfortable position in which the bent-over row places the lower back, you may find that you struggle to hold a flexed position at the hip. Performing the exercise in an almost upright position changes muscle recruitment quite markedly, shifting the stress on to the upper back and neck muscles. More importantly, it also pulls the shoulder joint into an internally rotated position as you raise the bar, which increases the risk of shoulder injury.

KEY INFORMATION

Pull-ups are traditionally the best means of strengthening the pulling muscles of the upper body. Inverted rows are an easier version of pull-ups as some of your body weight is supported. Upper body gymnastic style exercises such as these also provide a great means of conditioning the trunk muscles at the same time.

To ensure you maintain a bent-over position through the entire set, raise the bar off the ground slightly by placing it on a couple of weighted plates, so when you flex at the hips and grasp the weight, your elbows are fully extended. As you lower the weight, ensure the bar touches the start position before you commence the next repetition.

EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH TRAINING

General strength is an important quality for a runner to develop, and if you are new to resistance training, it is likely the exercises presented in this chapter so far will directly enhance your performance. The main adaptation that general strength training develops is motor unit recruitment (see Table 6a), an ability of the nervous system to activate the muscle fibres that produce high forces. This is all well and good, but during the running stride, the nervous system only has around a quarter of a second to get the correct muscles to contract. So switching them on in the first place is one objective, but getting them to contract quickly is another. The ability to recruit motor units is therefore a completely separate adaptation to ‘firing frequency’, which governs how rapidly force is developed. So whereas general resistance training using slower movements develops strength, you need to incorporate much more explosive exercises to improve the rate at which force is developed.

There is often a temptation to include a high volume of explosive strength-training exercises from the start of an S&C programme because they are more specific to the movement speeds seen during running. Although this will probably improve performance, progress is likely to be short-lived if a period of general strength development isn’t included first. In order to access high threshold motor units with rapid frequency, you need to be able to recruit them first. Therefore, developing a sound base of strength is likely to progress your performance much further in the long run if you are willing to be patient.

The second reason it is important to delay the inclusion of explosive exercises to your programme is that general strength training tends to require less skill, because the exercises are performed relatively slowly and under control. They are therefore more suitable for beginners to initially acquire skill and coordination, before adding speed to similar movements, where there is far less room for error.

Movement category | Exercise | Progression
Weightlifting Throwing/squat jump Box jumping | Hang clean Medicine ball throw Box jump | Power clean Barbell squat jump Single leg box jump

Table 6g: Explosive strength training exercises and associated progressions.

Table 6g shows a set of suitable exercises to develop explosive strength. The key difference between the exercises presented here, and those in the strength training sections, is that these require acceleration of joints through a full range of movement. This means you will often need to leave the ground in an effort to move a load quickly. Sub-consciously when performing strength training exercises there is a deceleration as end range is approached. This is the body’s natural response to holding a heavy weight and having to change direction of movement. To overcome this limitation, explosive strength training exercises utilize lighter loads and techniques that allow the weight to be released. The primary focus when executing these exercises should therefore be aggression and intent to move explosively. Without this characteristic when performing, the benefits of the exercises are virtually lost.

KEY INFORMATION

Strength training develops your ability to produce higher forces, but during the running stride you need to produce these forces within a fraction of a second. Explosive strength training involves moving lighter weights very quickly to develop your ability to produce high force rapidly.

Chapter 3 explains in detail how force is developed during the running stride, which heavily underpins the selection of resistance training exercises. The primary focus should be placed upon enhancing the ability of the Achilles tendon to store and return elastic energy (see Chapter 7). Possessing sufficient strength in the lower limb muscles to stabilize the ankle, knee and hip is crucial in allowing this to happen. In addition to a plyometric action, there is also contribution from the knee extensor muscles (quadriceps), but more importantly the powerful hip extensor muscles (gluteals), to generating force against the ground.

The exercises suggested in Table 6g for development of explosive strength qualities are therefore mainly hip dominant. This means they are designed to develop rapid recruitment of the gluteal muscles during a hip extension movement pattern, which is designed to maximize the force delivered at push-off during running.

Based upon the same principle as general strength training, explosive strength exercises should mainly be bilateral in nature (performed on two legs). From a single leg stance position, which has a narrow base of support and lower musculature involved, developing high levels of force quickly is very difficult. Therefore to enhance a greater firing frequency of motor units, setting up a position that allows the body to express force rapidly is the best strategy. Ultimately, expressing force off one leg at a time is what happens when you run, therefore some exercises that facilitate transfer of gains in explosive strength to running performance are certainly necessary. This is why exercises such as hopping and bounding should be used, which are detailed in the chapter on plyometric training. A single leg box jump is one option of progressing a standard box jump towards a more specific movement.

Weightlifting Exercises

Weightlifting (one word) is a sport that involves two lifts: the clean and jerk, and the snatch. The snatch involves lifting a barbell from the ground to above your head in one continuous movement. The clean and jerk is essentially two separate lifts. The clean requires the barbell to be raised from the ground to your shoulders in one continuous movement, and the jerk involves the bar being raised from the shoulders to an overhead position. Simple as they sound, weightlifting exercises require a high level of co-ordination, timing and skill. To generate high levels of force, the bar needs to be manipulated around the body to take advantage of optimal limb positions. Learning to execute weightlifting movements well is therefore of high importance, rather than simply heaving the bar up with poor technique.

In addition to improving co-ordination and control of movement, weightlifting has other benefits that are too numerous to address fully here. Although weightlifting is predominantly classified as an explosive power exercise, it provides overload to a multitude of other physical qualities that are required for running. This makes it an incredibly time-efficient exercise, which improves general athleticism and can lower injury risk. Therefore if you have the opportunity to be taught to clean or snatch competently by a qualified coach, this would be a fantastic investment in time.

Although S&C coaches rely on weightlifting exercises and their derivative movements to varying extents, a chapter on resistance training for running performance wouldn’t be complete without coverage of at least the basic technique. Although learning how to clean or snatch isn’t necessarily a complicated or lengthy process, due to the complexity of the skills compared to other resistance training exercises, you will benefit considerably from being taught the exercises by a qualified coach. For the purpose of this book, only a teaching sequence for learning the clean movement has been included.

A satisfactory level of skill when using bilateral strength training exercises (Romanian deadlift, full deadlift and squat) is a prerequisite to learning the clean. For safety reasons, it is also important that you use a barbell that spins through the middle and has circular plastic-covered plates for lifting. You will also require an area where you can drop the weight without risking damage to the floor. If you don’t have access to this equipment or facility, unfortunately this may preclude you from incorporating weightlifting skills into your explosive strength training programme. You will, however, gain similar benefits by using the other exercises described in this section.

KEY INFORMATION

Weightlifting involves raising a bar from the ground to above your head in one (snatch) or two (clean and jerk) explosive movements. Weightlifting skills develop a large range of important physical qualities that make it a very time-efficient way to train. You will need access to a facility with a weightlifting platform and equipment to learn these skills safely.

Hang Clean

Aims:

* | Development of explosive strength (hip dominant)
* | To improve co-ordination and posture

Technique:

Fig. 6.20(i): Start position for hang clean.

Fig. 6.20(ii): Top position of hang clean (triple extension and shoulder shrug).

Fig. 6.20(iii): Hang clean catch position (quarter squat with the bar positioned across the upper chest/shoulders).

See Figs 6.20(i), 6.20(ii) and 6.20(iii).

* | Grasp a barbell with an overhand grip slightly wider than hip width apart
* | From a standing position with the elbows straight, perform a Romanian deadlift movement
* | The start position of a hang clean is with the barbell positioned just above the kneecap, with the knees slightly bent, the shins vertical and the back in a neutral position (see Fig. 6.20(i))
* | From this position, perform an explosive vertical jump. You should feel a quick re-bending of your knees followed by your hips making contact with the bar
* | Finish the jump by shrugging your shoulders; the elbows should remain straight (see Fig. 6.20(ii))
* | Allow the bar to continue the upward momentum you’ve created by starting to bend your elbows upwards and back so the bar stays close to your torso
* | As your elbows bend, allow your bodyweight to drop quickly under the bar as if you are dropping into a squat position
* | Rotate your wrists and elbows around the bar quickly so the bar finishes on your shoulders and upper chest
* | You should catch the bar in a partial squat position with the elbows pointing forwards (see Fig. 6.20(iii))
* | Drive through your heels back to a standing position with the bar across your shoulders

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 5 repetitions (3min recovery) with barbell and training plates (5–10kg)
* | Explosive strength: 3 x 1–5 repetitions (3–5min recovery) at RPE of 7–8 or 70–100 per cent of power clean 1RM

Progression:

* | Increase load
* | Clean from the ground (see ‘Power Clean’ below)

Power Clean

Aims:

* | Development of explosive strength
* | To improve co-ordination, posture and mobility

Technique:

Fig. 6.20(iv): Start position for the power clean.

Fig. 6.20(v): End of the first pull movement (the bar just above the kneecap).

Fig. 6.20(vi): Top of the power clean (triple extension and shoulder shrug).

Fig. 6.20(vii): Power clean catch position (quarter squat with the bar positioned across the upper

See Figs 6.20(iv) to 6.20(vii).

* | Position the feet hip width apart with the barbell positioned over the bottom eyelets of the shoes
* | Bend at the ankles, knees and hips with the feet flat on the floor
* | The shins should touch the bar, the shoulders should be slightly over the bar, with the hips higher than the knees
* | Grip the barbell with an overhand grip so the elbows are outside the knees
* | Tighten the lower back, breathe in, lift the chest and pull the shoulder blades tight together (see Fig. 6.20(iv))
* | Raise the bar from the ground under control by straightening the knees whilst keeping the bar close to the shins
* | During this first movement, the torso angle should remain the same as the start position (see Fig. 6.20(v))
* | As the bar passes the knees, perform an explosive vertical jump. You should feel a quick re-bending of your knees followed by your hips making contact with the bar
* | Finish the jump by shrugging your shoulders. The elbows should remain straight (see Fig. 6.20(vi))
* | Allow the bar to continue the upward momentum you’ve created by starting to bend your elbows upwards and back so the bar stays close to your torso
* | As your elbows bend, allow your bodyweight to drop quickly under the bar as if you were dropping into a squat position
* | Rotate your wrists and elbows around the bar quickly so the bar finishes on your shoulders and upper chest
* | You should catch the bar in a partial squat position with the elbows pointing forwards (see Fig. 6.20(vii))
* | Drive through your heels back to a standing position with the bar across your shoulders

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 5 repetitions (3min recovery) with barbell and training plates (5–10kg)
* | Explosive strength: 3 x 1–5 repetitions (3–5min recovery) at RPE of 7–8 or 70–100 per cent 1RM

Progression:

* | Increase load

Typical Errors and Corrections

The following are typical errors and corrections that might arise during the clean exercises.

(See also ‘Typical Errors and Corrections’ in the deadlifting section.)

Bar travels away from the body

When performing any lift from the ground, such as a clean or deadlift, it is crucial that the bar remains close to the body throughout the movement. This will mean the weight is positioned directly below the body’s centre of mass. Deviations of the bar away from the body will result in muscles having to perform extra work, and this often results in a loss of balance and an untidy-looking lift.

During the first movement off the ground, when the knees are straightening, it is common to see the shins moving backwards but the bar travelling vertically. It is important here that the bar is pulled close to the shins using the latissimus dorsi muscles in the back so that it also moves slightly backwards. To correct this error, stand a plastic bottle behind one of the plates on the barbell, and as you lift the bar from the ground, make sure the bottle topples over.

Fig. 6.20(viii): Error when the bar travels away from the body.

A similar issue might occur as you finish the jump and the bar strikes your hips. An aggressive contact against your hips is likely to send the bar flying away from your body as you drop into your squat position (see Fig. 6.20(viii)). The error is usually characterized by a hop forward with the feet to catch the bar in a partial squat position. This error can stem from a number of issues, including a poor weight distribution as the bar leaves the ground, exaggerated knee re-bending before the jump, or simply over-extending in the lower back to finish the jump.

If the bar hits quite low on your thighs and loops away, this is best corrected by ensuring that during the first movement as the bar leaves the ground, the bodyweight travels to the rear part of the foot. Use the plastic bottle drill described above. If the bar strikes higher up your hips before travelling away, try marking a chalk line across the end of your shoes and attempt to finish behind the line on every repetition.

Hips don’t make contact during the triple extension jump

Fig. 6.20(ix): Error when the hips don’t make contact with the bar at the end of the jump phase.

See Fig. 6.20(ix). In contrast to the thighs or hips making a very hard contact with the bar, you may actually experience the opposite, and struggle to get the bar close to your body when jumping. This is mainly caused by an incomplete jump in an effort to drop into a partial squat position more quickly and finish the lift. The urgency to catch the bar often stems from the thought that the lift needs to be very fast and therefore the jump phase can be cut short to achieve this sensation. This becomes a bigger issue as the load on the bar increases, as there is then a temptation to pull on the bar with the arms to ensure it moves the required distance.

To correct this error, you must ensure that a full triple extension is achieved at ankle, knee and, most importantly, the hips, before you attempt to start your drop under the bar. Instead of performing the hang clean or full power clean, remove the phase where you catch the bar on the shoulders: in other words, only perform a jump and shrug with the bar. As you reach a position where the bar is just above the kneecaps with the knees only slightly bent, simply jump explosively upwards, and finish by shrugging your shoulders. The elbows should remain straight at the end of this drill.

By removing the skill of repositioning your body to catch the bar, it is likely you’ll be able to start adding heavier loads than usual on this simple jump and shrug exercise.

The elbows bend too early

Fig. 6.20(x): Error when the elbows break too early during the cleans.

See Fig. 6.20(x). During weightlifting movements, the upper body plays an important role in connecting the legs to the load that you are trying to move. If the upper body does this job poorly, due to poor technique or lack of strength in these muscles, there will be energy leakages in this link, and the lift will be executed poorly. Pulling with the arms at any point in the lift is one example of a break in connection with the bar that will prevent the legs performing the important work. The muscles in the arms involved with pulling a bar upwards are very weak compared to the muscles of the legs involved with a triple extension movement pattern. Actively pulling with the upper body adds very little to force production. Bending the elbows too early also tends to delay dropping under the bar into a partial squat position, which becomes an important skill as the weight gradually increases.

If you find it difficult to keep your elbows straight until the top of the jump phase, practise the exercise described to correct the last error, the jump and shrug. Before commencing each jump and shrug movement, squeeze your elbows tight and ensure they are pointing along the line of the bar. At the end of each jump and shrug repetition, check that your elbows are still in this locked-out position.

The elbows point down in the catch position

Fig. 6.20(xi): Error when catching the bar with the elbows pointing down.

See Fig. 6.20(xi). You may find that you struggle to fully rotate your wrists and elbows when attempting to catch the bar across your shoulders and upper chest. If this happens your elbows may finish pointing downwards, so you are taking the strain through your wrists and arms. This typically occurs when people pull on the bar with their arms, and so end up gripping when they catch it. It can also happen in those who have poor wrist flexibility and who struggle to allow the bar to roll into their fingertips so it sits across their shoulders.

To eliminate this error from your practice, incorporate some regular front squats into your strength-training routine. Front squats should be performed in an identical manner to back squats, except the bar is positioned across your shoulders and upper chest, with the elbows pointing forwards. If wrist flexibility is the issue, it is a good idea to incorporate some simple wrist stretches in your warm-up, as this will enable a more comfortable support position to be achieved.

KEY INFORMATION

A hang clean simply involves flexing over from the hips and performing an explosive jump with weight. Allow your elbows to bend following the jump, so the bar continues its upward momentum. Rotate your elbows around the bar until they point forward and the bar is positioned on your upper chest.

Throwing/Squat Jump

Weightlifting is often described as ‘weighted jumping’ because the bar is manipulated around the body until you reach an effective jump position, which is the best position to generate force from. Squat jumping and throwing exercises are, in part, simpler versions of weightlifting exercises, as they demand less skill and time commitment to learn. This isn’t to say that these exercises should be given preference, as weightlifting provides many other benefits that throwing and jumping cannot. The main difference is in the load that each exercise is designed to move. Weightlifting exercises aim to accelerate heavier loads, so are often referred to ‘strength-speed’ exercises. Squat jumping and throwing exercises utilize lighter loads that can be accelerated much more rapidly, so are often referred to as ‘speed-strength’ activities. This sounds like only a subtle difference in terminology, but the adaptations developed are quite different.

Due to the differences in load involved, the jump phase of a medicine ball throw or squat jump is much quicker than during weightlifting. This means that although the rate at which force is developed is higher when weightlifting, muscle fibres need to be recruited much faster during a jump or a throw. There is therefore a difference in the types of muscle fibre that are recruited, and the rate at which they are being activated. Based upon this, it is important to keep the loads light when performing squat jumps and overhead throws. The exercises are suitable for accelerating small loads very quickly, so attempting to move heavy loads poses an injury risk and results in a sub-optimal adaptation.

Although weighted jumping, throwing and box jumping all involve a rapid eccentric contraction when dipping down, they are not strictly plyometric exercises (see Chapter 7). This is because there is very little elastic energy or reflexive response from the nervous system during these activities, because the eccentric load placed on the muscles is actually quite small. However, the quality that is overloaded during this dip phase is associated with the muscles’ ability to create tension very quickly both in the contractile and connective tissues. To harness this most effectively, you should focus on a fast dip (and arm swing when box jumping), followed by a rapid change of direction into the vertical jump. Based upon this information, the purpose of nonweightlifting explosive exercises is to improve the rapid development of concentric force production from a high state of pre-tension in the muscles.

The skill of catching a bar on your shoulders during weightlifting exercises can sometimes detract from the focus of moving a load rapidly. Therefore, a final advantage to squat jumps and overhead throwing is that the load can be accelerated through a full range of movement without having to worry about where it travels and ends up. During an overhead throw, the medicine ball is released, and when squat jumping the bar stays positioned on your back throughout the set.

KEY INFORMATION

Throwing a medicine ball overhead or jumping with a light load on your back is a great way of developing your explosive strength. The exercises are simpler to execute than weightlifting movements and require little equipment.

Although medicine ball throwing requires minimal equipment, it does require a suitable space. For obvious reasons, it is risky to perform the medicine ball overhead throw exercise in an indoor space: it is recommended that you perform the exercise outdoors or in a sports hall with sufficient overhead clearance and space. When performing the exercise, ensure that the area around you is completely clear, as the ball can easily ricochet off an object on the ground and cause injury. Most importantly, under no circumstances should you attempt to catch the ball as it returns back towards the ground! Allow it to land and come to rest before collecting it and performing the next repetition.

Overhead Medicine Ball Throw

Aims:

* | Development of explosive speed-strength
* | Transmission of force through the body

Technique:

Fig. 6.21(i): Medicine ball overhead throw start position.

Fig. 6.21(ii): Medicine ball overhead throw dip position.

Fig. 6.21(iii): Medicine ball overhead throw jump and release position.

See Figs 6.21(i), 6.21(ii) and 6.21(iii).

* | Grip a medicine ball weighing 2–6kg with the arms straight
* | Stand with the feet slightly wider apart than hip width, and turn the toes slightly outwards
* | Keeping the feet flat on the ground, dip rapidly into a squat position
* | Maintain alignment at ankle–knee–hips, and keep the back straight
* | Rapidly change direction and jump vertically in the air
* | As you jump, launch the medicine ball as high as possible into the air keeping the elbows straight as the ball releases
* | Keep your eyes on the medicine ball and move out of its way as it lands near you!

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 5 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with 2–4kg medicine ball
* | Explosive strength: 3 x 1–5 repetitions (3–5min recovery) with 2–6kg medicine ball

Progression:

* | Increase load
* | Barbell squat jump

Barbell Squat Jump

Aims:

* | Development of explosive speed-strength
* | To enhance landing skill under load

Technique:

Fig. 6.21(iv): Barbell squat jump dip position.

See Fig. 6.21(iv).

* | Position an empty barbell (15–20kg) on your upper back (ideally this should be unracked from a squat rack, as described for the back squat exercise)
* | Pull down on the bar as if you were trying to bend it across your back: this will tighten your chest and trunk region, which is important for when you land
* | Perform an explosive vertical jump by dipping into a squat position rapidly and jumping as high as possible
* | Ensure that as you dip, your feet stay flat on the ground and your ankles–knees– hips remain aligned

Progression:

* | Jump more aggressively to achieve greater height
* | Increase the load

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 5 repetitions (2–3min recovery) with 15–20kg barbell
* | Explosive strength: 3 x 1–5 repetitions (3–5min recovery) with 30–40 per cent of back squat 1RM

Typical Errors and Corrections

Flexion through the back during the dip

Fig. 6.21(v): Flexion through back error when dipping on an explosive jump.

See Fig. 6.21(v). Similar to other exercises that involve moving through a wide range at the hip to use the gluteal muscles, it is not uncommon to observe a loss of neutral spine position during the downward phase. During the medicine ball overhead throw the spine tends to be thrown out of position due to the long lever created by holding a ball out with straight arms.

To overcome this error, remove the rapid dip phase, which is causing the issue by starting from a half squat position and focusing on tightening your back. Start the exercise from this bottom position and perform an explosive jump. Bring the dip back into the exercise, but ensure you are in control of your back position before progressing the exercise.

Lower back hyperextends during the jump

Fig. 6.21(vi): It is an error for the lower back to hyperextend at the top of a jump.

See Fig. 6.21(vi). During the dip phase of your jumps you may be resisting your back moving into a flexed position. At the top of your jump, the opposite is likely to be true. Often when athletes attempt to drive their hips forwards to fully recruit their gluteal muscles they tend to over-exaggerate the movement and lean back, which begins to place unnecessary stress on the lower back as the spine hyperextends. Both of these errors (flexion into hyperextension) when performed in conjunction with one another on the same repetition, are potentially very risky.

When throwing or jumping, always aim to leap vertically and hit the ceiling. Pull your hips tall but not excessively forwards. As with the error of a hard hip hit during weightlifting exercises, one constraint you can place on yourself here is to mark a line across the end of your feet and ensure that you land behind the line.

Heels leave the ground during the dip

Fig. 6.21(vii): Heels leave the ground during the dip error.

See Fig. 6.21(vii). When dropping rapidly into a half squat position during jumping, you may find it difficult to keep your feet flat on the ground. If you find your heels lifting, it is likely that you have excessively tight calves or have a tendency to be knee dominant in your squat pattern.

KEY INFORMATION

Perform a medicine ball overhead throw by dipping and jumping rapidly to launch a weighted ball as high as possible into the air. The jump squat is performed as an explosive jump for height with an unloaded bar across your back.

To ensure that you utilize the full power of the muscles around your hips, and not just your knees, practise lowering into your normal squat pattern at a slower speed. You should feel the weight firmly through the centre of your foot here, and your heels should be down. During your practice repetitions, check you hit this position consistently before starting to drop quickly again.

Box Jumping

An exercise that involves much less equipment and time investment than weightlifting and medicine ball throwing is a box jump. Box jumping is essentially exactly the same as performing a vertical jump from a standing position, the only difference being that you land on a box positioned in front of you. The main function of the box is to act as a target mechanism to force you into jumping as high as possible. It also plays some function in developing your ability to switch from a hip extension movement pattern (as you leave the ground) rapidly into a flexed position, to achieve clearance on to the box. This quick switch between muscular regimes is exactly the movement pattern performed when running.

Compared to weightlifting and throwing exercises that involve lifting a load rapidly, box jumping requires you to elevate your own bodyweight against gravity. In this regard, and also due to the similarity of movement patterns, box jumping carries a higher level of specificity to the running stride. It is important to remember that all explosive exercises described in this section have their merits. Although force is developed in a shorter time when box jumping (as when running), the actual rate at which force is developed is much greater during weightlifting and squat jumping/throwing, owing to the heavier load that needs to be lifted.

KEY INFORMATION

To include box jumping in your programme, you simply need to find a sturdy object of suitable height to leap on. The box forces you to jump as high as possible but be careful not to select a box too high that you might not make!

Box jumping is a relatively safe explosive exercise to perform, and is very unlikely to cause an injury. Although it is crucial to achieve ankle–knee–hip alignment during the dip and landing, it poses less risk than exercises such as back squats and plyometrics due to the minimal loading involved. The one safety issue that is important to consider, however, is the box height. There is a trade-off between increasing box height, and the risk that you might injure yourself if you miss the box by not generating sufficient height. It is therefore advised that you perform box jumps to a height that is repeatedly attainable for you. If you find yourself landing in a squat position with the thighs below parallel and in a poor back position, you know that the box is probably a little too high!

Box Jump and Single Leg Box Jump

Aims:

* | Development of explosive strength with bodyweight
* | To improve rapid switching between triple extension and flexion

Technique:

Fig. 6.22(i): Box jump start position.

Fig. 6.22(ii): Box jump dip position.

Fig. 6.22(iii): Box jump landing position.

See Figs 6.22(i) to 6.22(iii).

* | Stand facing a box positioned a foot length away
* | Raise both arms above your head
* | Perform an explosive vertical jump by dropping rapidly into a partial squat before reversing direction and extending at ankles, knees and hips
* | During the dip phase, throw your arms back and downwards before rapidly bringing them forwards during the jump up
* | As you leave the ground, flex at the hip to bring your knees towards your chest
* | Land on the box in a squat position with the feet hip width apart and the back in a neutral position
* | Throughout all phases of the jump and landing ensure alignment between the ankles, knees and hips

Fig. 6.22(iv): Single leg box jump dip position.

Fig. 6.22(v): Single leg box jump landing position.

The same technique applies to the single leg box jump, but perform a vertical hop on to the box (see Figs 6.22(iv) and 6.22(v)).

Progression:

* | Increase the height of the box

Prescription:

* | Learning: 3 x 5 repetitions (2–3min recovery)
* | Explosive strength: 3 x 1–5 repetitions (3–5min recovery)

Typical Errors and Corrections when Box Jumping

Misalignment at ankle–knee–hip

Fig. 6.22(vi): Misalignment at ankle–knee–hip (knee valgus) on landing from a box jump.

See Fig. 6.22(vi). Part of the reason that competence is required in general strength-training exercises before more explosive movements are performed, is that if errors in technique are not resolved during basic exercises, they will always be present during more rapid movements. If you find your knees are collapsing inwards during the dip phase of your jump, and/or when landing on the box, it is likely to be caused by similar issues to those previously described in this chapter. Assuming you have established a decent level of strength before including explosive exercises, but still observe lower limb misalignment when box jumping, it is likely that although your nervous system is conditioned to align the knees during slow movements, it lacks the coordination to activate the movement pattern rapidly.

The most obvious regression from box jumping is to remove the challenge of the box! Practise performing vertical jumps facing a mirror if possible, and check your knee position during the dip and landing. If you have a theraband, tie it round your knees and when practising your vertical jumps on the spot, resist the pull of the band by forcing your knees outwards slightly.

Lacking hip drive on jump

Fig. 6.22(vii): Lacking hip drive during box jumping.

See Fig. 6.22(vii). This error is often quite difficult to spot owing to how fast the legs are moving as you leave the ground. It is, however, an important error to address, as ultimately the effectiveness of box jumping is determined not by the height of the box you leap on to, but the force you deliver against the ground. There can often be a temptation to limit full extension at the hips during a maximal jump, due to the need to pull the knees through rapidly to land on the box safely. But by not pushing the hips fully through, a jump becomes a very knee-dominant movement and the gluteal muscles are not fully recruited to contribute to the jump. This error therefore tends to occur in those slightly anxious about the height of the box, or individuals who possess a relative weakness in their gluteals as compared to the muscles that extend the knee. Again, it is sensible to lower the height of the box if you suspect you are not extending your hips sufficiently. Place the focus on pulling yourself tall as you leave the ground.

Dipping too low

Fig. 6.22(viii): Dipping too low during box jumping.

See Fig. 6.22(viii). During your jumps, you may find that you can generate more height if you squat lower during the initial dip phase. This is a reflection of the fact that you require a longer period of time to develop a state of pre-tension in the muscles, which is needed to maximize your jump height. A lower squat depth essentially delays the jump fractionally, allowing more time for an active state of muscle contraction to be reached, as compared to dipping to a shallower depth.

Although there is nothing particularly risky about this error, it does tend to pull the spine out of a neutral position and make it a more knee-dominant movement pattern. In addition, it is also beneficial to develop a state of tension in the muscle more rapidly. This will mainly come through practice of the exercises, but to avoid developing bad habits, it is recommended that initially you lower the box height and focus on changing direction from a higher squat position. As a rough rule, you should dip to a position no lower than with your knees at a right angle. To help hit this position consistently, place a chair or bench behind you that marks this position, and aim to touch before you jump.

DESIGNING A RESISTANCE TRAINING SESSI ON

Table 6h: Example of a resistance training session for an endurance runner new to S&C.

You might at this point feel a little overwhelmed with all the information presented in this chapter! The exercises you select will largely depend upon the equipment and facilities you have available to perform your S&C, and more importantly your individual requirements. The chapter has been structured to allow you to put together a programme quite easily. If you are completely new to resistance training, it is crucial that the focus of your sessions is learning to execute the movements with good technique. It would be unwise to initially select an exercise from the explosive strength list, so this leaves the basic strength, unilateral and upper body exercises. Given that a typical resistance training session usually has five to six exercises before quality drastically starts to decline, it would seem logical to pick two basic strength exercises, two unilateral exercises, and an upper body exercise if you are new to S&C. Table 6h shows an example session to reflect this, based upon the prescription explained in this chapter.

Table 6i: Example resistance training session for an endurance runner experienced in strength training.

The principles of programming and progression are addressed more fully in Chapter 14, but it may interest you to compare how the suggestions for a complete novice differ from a runner who is experienced in strength training. Table 6i shows a typical resistance training session for a well trained runner. This doesn’t include some of the more conditioning-based exercises that may also be incorporated in the session. It will hopefully give you an idea of how a very basic set of movements can be progressed towards a session with more volume, complexity and explosiveness.

CHAPTER 7: PLYOMETRIC TRAINING

In Chapter 3, which explained the biomechanics of the running action, the term ‘plyometric’ was mentioned as the main way in which force is produced to propel the body forwards during continuous running. A plyometric muscle action involves the rapid coupling together of an eccentric and a concentric muscle contraction known as the ‘stretch-shortening cycle’. Fig. 3.3 shows that when the foot strikes the ground during the running stride, the muscles around the ankle and knee are forced to lengthen (eccentric contraction) momentarily as they succumb to the effect of gravity pushing the body downwards. As this direction is the opposite to the way we want to move, the eccentric phase is always performed under a high degree of tension. So the more rapidly your muscles are able to activate to prevent your leg collapsing, the faster they will reach a static state (isometric contraction). The third phase of a stretch-shortening cycle is the propulsive action, where the direction is reversed with a shortening of the muscles (concentric contraction) to propel the body forwards.

When compared to producing force solely with a concentric contraction, rapid use of the stretch-shortening cycle is a far more effective and efficient way to move. In essence, the stretch-shortening cycle allows us to bounce along the surface using our tendons and nervous system, instead of excessive muscular energy, in a very natural way. Luckily for us, the mechanisms that underpin the use of the stretch-shortening cycle are highly trainable. Therefore if training exercises are selected to overload these qualities and progressed appropriately, running performance is very likely to improve.

KEY INFORMATION

A ‘plyometric action’ involves a rapid muscle lengthening quickly followed by a shortening contraction. This occurs during every stride during running and can be improved with plyometric training.

MECHANISMS OF THE STRETCH-SHORTENING CYCLE

Although every running stride can be considered ‘plyometric training’, it takes a more formalized approach to overloading the stretch-shortening cycle to achieve an improvement in performance. Having a basic understanding of the science that explains how the stretch-shortening cycle works, helps build a rationale for the training strategy you should use.

Elasticity

Tendons consist of a tightly woven structure of fibres made from a substance called ‘collagen’, which allows forces to be transmitted from muscles to bones. Tendons also possess a low ‘compliance’ to becoming deformed, meaning that if you lengthen a tendon, it has a tendency to want to spring back to its resting length, in much the same way as an elastic rubber band. The body uses this natural feature of tendons to its advantage by using the energy that can be stored to save muscles carrying out the unnecessary work.

This mechanism of the stretch-shortening cycle is most important for endurance running. During every stride the Achilles tendon functions to help propel a runner forwards by storing energy on ground contact and rapidly releasing it at push-off. The better this mechanism functions, the more a runner can become reliant on re-using energy instead of the muscles having to produce the work, which requires the use of oxygen and energy. Having a ‘stiffer’ tendon that when lengthened on ground contact is capable of rapidly returning more energy will ultimately reduce the amount of oxygen you need to run at a given speed, and will therefore improve your running economy.

Although tendons are naturally quite stiff structures as compared to other tissues in the body, exposure to high eccentric loads seems to make them even stiffer and capable of storing and returning more energy. This is one of the reasons why it is so beneficial to perform plyometric training exercises, which provide a higher eccentric loading to a tendon, as compared to normal running.

Developing a tendon’s ability to store more energy on landing by becoming stiffer is one important quality to train, but getting them to use this stored energy is a very different quality. The energy stored in tendons starts to dissipate (mainly as heat) during the lengthening phase of the stretch-shortening cycle. Therefore, the longer the foot remains in contact with the ground during a running stride, the less likely the energy from this mechanism will be used. When developing the ability to store and return energy via tendons by using plyometric training, the need to keep ground contact times short is therefore critical: the more quickly you can react off the ground when jumping and hopping, the faster you will develop this quality. This is the primary reason why introducing only a small amount of additional height or distance to exercises is important for a beginner. If your muscles and tendons are not strong enough to deal with forces higher than those experienced when running, you will simply deal with the additional loading by spending a long time on the ground.

KEY INFORMATION

The Achilles tendon behaves like an elastic band. Plyometric training will improve the amount of elastic energy that can be stored and released in the Achilles during running. This will mean you run faster for the same level of effort!

Reflexes

As well as tendons playing an important role in augmenting force production during a stretch-shortening cycle, the nervous system also plays an important part. As your foot is in contact with the ground for only a fraction of a second, it is impossible for you to voluntarily think about how you are producing force. You therefore have to rely on your nervous system and, more specifically, small sensors, known as proprioceptors, located within your muscles and tendons, to provide feedback on force production.

The main proprioceptors associated with the stretch-shortening cycle are ‘muscle spindles’ located deep inside a muscle. Spindles are responsible for detecting changes in muscle length, providing more electrical feedback to the nervous system when the muscle lengthens rapidly. Spindles essentially act as a protective mechanism to prevent muscles from straining when they change their length too quickly. During a fast muscle lengthening, such as at ground contact when running, the spindles discharge at a very fast rate to let the nervous system know that the muscle is at risk of a strain. The nervous system responds by sending a signal back to the muscle to bring about a shortening contraction. The stretch-shortening cycle uses this reflexive mechanism to its advantage, as you essentially get an added burst of force at no extra cost.

Similar to the ability of tendons to adapt to plyometric training, this mechanism is also a trainable quality. Muscle spindles show a higher degree of sensitivity after periods where they have been exposed to plyometric training involving rapid eccentric contractions.

KEY INFORMATION

Plyometric training enhances the function of our nervous system by improving the sensitivity of our reflexes.

A second important proprioceptor that plays a role in limiting stretch-shortening cycle function is the ‘golgi tendon organ’ (GTO). GTOs are located at the muscle–tendon junction so are well placed to provide feedback on the amount of force a muscle is producing. Similar to spindles, GTOs act to protect the body by providing feedback to the nervous system regarding the level of force that is being produced. The GTOs are thought to be over-sensitive to the forces that are transmitted through the tendon, so subsequently tend to inhibit a muscular contraction. By exposing a tendon to gradually higher amounts of force with plyometric training, an important resultant adaptation, which allows us to produce and control greater amounts of force, is a dampening of the GTO inhibitory mechanism.

Contractile Mechanisms

When an eccentric muscle contraction precedes a concentric contraction, a set of events also occurs within the muscle itself, and these help explain why a stretch-shortening cycle is a superior way to produce force. In comparison to elastic and reflexive mechanisms of the stretch-shortening cycle, contractile mechanisms tend to be used during stretch-shortening cycles where an eccentric lengthening phase is much longer than typically seen during a running action. This type of stretch-shortening cycle is seen in many sports that involve jumping for maximum height, or where an external resistance has to be overcome in addition to our bodyweight. If you are running at a slow speed or tend to strike the ground with your heel, it is likely you will rely more on contractile-based mechanisms during each stretch-shortening cycle than runners who are much quicker off the ground. For single jumps, this is potentially a more effective strategy to produce force, but during cyclical and prolonged movements that use the stretch-shortening cycle such as endurance running, this is uneconomical and much less productive.

When a muscle performs an eccentric contraction or is able to build up tension, the number of muscle fibres that are recruited is much larger as compared to a concentric contraction. Therefore if an eccentric contraction precedes a concentric action, as seen in a stretch-shortening cycle, the muscle starts from a much stronger position as it begins to shorten. To achieve the highest levels of muscle tension during the eccentric phase, longer time periods are required to enable the contractile elements of muscles to interact sufficiently. This is why contractile mechanisms tend to be used more during exercises that have long ground contact times, or skills where energy expenditure is less of an issue.

The most important consideration for fast stretch-shortening cycle actions, such as those typically used when running, is whether anything can be done prior to ground contact to create a higher level of tension within muscles. This is known as creating ‘pre-tension’, which helps to stiffen the connective tissue within muscles around the ankle and knee. There are two main strategies to consider that will help facilitate a higher level of pre-tension and maximize contribution from the stretch-shortening cycle during running.

KEY INFORMATION

Pull your toes tight to your shins before your foot strikes the ground during plyometric exercises to create some ‘pre-tension’ in your calf muscles.

Firstly, you will notice that for all plyometrics exercises described later in this chapter, a common technical marker is to cock the toe tight to the shin prior to ground contact. This ensures that as the ball of the foot strikes the ground, the connective tissue is pulled tight and tension can develop into an isometric state more rapidly. Similarly, and particularly for unilateral plyometric exercises, correct position of the pelvis allows the muscles around the hips to develop some pretension and stiffness. This is partly a reflection of your technical ability in the exercises, but also a function of how well stabilizing muscles around the hips and trunk are able to time their activation to provide some rigidity. The importance of adhering to the technical points for each exercise, and practising the techniques at a level you are capable of, is therefore crucial in order to maximize the development of plyometric qualities.

SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

Table 7a: Summary of scientific studies that have investigated the effect of a plyometric training inter

Theoretically there is a very strong rationale for overloading the mechanisms described above with plyometric training to improve stretch-shortening cycle function. But is there any actual evidence from scientific intervention studies that indicates that this strategy is effective? Luckily there is! Not only is there a convincing body of literature that suggests plyometric training improves performance in exercises that use the stretch-shortening cycle, such as jumping, there are also a decent number of papers that have been published specifically looking at the impact on endurance running. A summary of the findings from these papers is shown in Table 7a.

In general, most studies have observed that following a period of plyometric training, endurance performance is enhanced mainly as a result of improvements in running economy and time to exhaustion at a sub-maximal speed. Given the mechanisms that are overloaded with plyometric training exercises, it is not surprising that improvements are seen in these qualities. Plyometric exercises that emphasize short ground-contact times in particular result in improvements in storage and return of elastic energy, improvements in the stretch reflex, and an enhanced ability to create stiffness and pre-tension in the muscles surrounding the joints of the lower limb. These adaptations reduce the oxygen cost of running by making runners more reliant on re-using energy through a more effective use of their stretch-shortening cycle.

KEY INFORMATION

Scientific research has shown that plyometric training can improve running economy and time to exhaustion in endurance runners.

INTRODUCING PLYOMETRICS INTO YOUR TRAINING

Due to the high stress on muscles and joints that is typically associated with plyometric training, athletes and coaches are understandably cautious when it comes to their inclusion in a training programme. Given the potential benefits to performance (and injury prevention) that a carefully managed and progressive programme of plyometric training offers, there is no reason to avoid incorporating this training strategy into your routine. The most important consideration when starting a plyometric training programme is that you are free of injury.

Many coaches suggest that athletes require high levels of strength before they can participate in a plyometric training programme. Although it is true that stronger individuals will probably gain more benefit from plyometrics, this is because they are likely to be able to start with more advanced exercises. For a runner new to S&C, there is no danger in learning low to moderate intensity plyometric exercises, which will still provide considerable benefits if prescribed appropriately. The key is to control the progression of intensity and volume carefully so that joints are not exposed to a dosage of loading that is too excessive.

KEY INFORMATION

Plyometric training is safe and effective for runners of all ages and abilities. For runners new to plyometric training, the volume and intensity of activities should start low and focus on correct technique.

PLYOMETRIC TRAINING EXERCISES

For an endurance runner who spends a short time in contact with the ground as compared to athletes from other sports, the most important mechanism of the stretch-shortening cycle to target in development is elasticity. To develop the capacity of the Achilles tendon to store and return elastic energy, exercises should be selected that expose a runner to higher levels of eccentric force than they experience when running, whilst still retaining a short ground-contact time. Similarly, the Achilles tendon will function more effectively if the muscles surrounding the ankle and knee are conditioned to activate rapidly and reach an isometric state of contraction. This allows the Achilles tendon to lengthen through range, and therefore store more energy, whilst the muscles act isometrically to hold the position of joints. Therefore exercises that are bilateral (double leg) in nature and ankle/knee dominant are the best for developing the elasticity quality.

Performing unilateral (single leg) plyometric exercises provides obvious benefits in terms of transfers to running performance due to their similarity with running. However, although single leg plyometrics are certainly more ‘specific’, they demand a greater level of skill. This means ground-contact times are generally longer, and stress is shifted to more areas of the body, rather than mainly around ankles and knees. As a result, there is a greater demand on co-ordination and control of forces, particularly around the hip. Hopping and bounding exercises therefore tend to overload contractile mechanisms of the stretch-shortening cycle and to some extent the contribution that might come from stretch reflex.

Hopping and bounding also assist in developing explosive hip extension qualities, which are an important feature of the running stride. As described in Chapter 3, although much of the force developed against the ground is provided by the effective use of the stretch-shortening cycle, the gluteals and hamstrings also provide a strong contribution towards propulsion. Moving in a horizontal direction, which requires the limb to reposition itself more than during vertical jumping, demands a greater contribution from muscles around the hips when the foot strikes the ground and then during push-off.

As a general rule, unilateral exercises should therefore be performed in a horizontal direction (hopping and bounding), whereas bilateral should be more vertically dominant (hurdle jumps and drop/depth jumps). Attempting to jump for height off one leg or bound forwards on two legs is incredibly difficult to execute effectively whilst attempting to retain a short ground-contact time and maximize force production without loss of balance or control.

KEY INFORMATION

Keep plyometric training simple! Learn re-bound jump exercises for improving the function of your Achilles tendon. Horizontal hopping and bounding exercises will develop explosive hip strength and your single leg stability.

Plyometric training exercises should be kept relatively simple in order to ensure that the correct mechanism of the stretch-shortening cycle is being overloaded and movement quality isn’t compromised. If performance outcomes relating to development of the mechanisms described earlier are the objective, over-complicating exercises will simply lead to sub-optimal development and delay transfers to running performance. Examples of scenarios to avoid when plyometric training include excessive volumes of repetitions, adding changes of direction, including an element of decision making or reacting to a stimulus, and combining with other skills such as sprinting.

Table 7b: Plyometric exercises to improve stretch-shortening qualities.

Table 7b provides an overview of the main plyometrics that should be used by runners of different experience to improve the stretch-shortening cycle. Plyometric training exercises can be grouped into four categories, two bilateral and two unilateral. The bilateral exercise strands involve predominantly vertical movement, where the focus is on developing jumping height whilst maintaining a short ground-contact time. The unilateral exercises require space to travel horizontally by either hopping or bounding for distance.

Hurdle Jumps

Vertical hurdle jumps are an easy and simple way to start incorporating some meaningful plyometrics into your training programme. Many coaches mistakenly measure the intensity of hurdle jumps simply by the height of the hurdle. Although repeated vertical jumps (pogos) may feel less intense than jumping over hurdles, in theory there should be little difference in the stress being imposed on the body. The height that your centre of mass raises off the ground when jumping maximally repeated times should be approximately the same as when leaping over a set of hurdles. The hurdles essentially provide a target to clear thereby ensuring you are maximizing jump height off the ground whilst retaining a short ground contact. In other words, if you are lazy pogo jumping, you won’t get away with it when jumping over hurdles!

Hurdles also force you to switch rapidly from a triple extended position when you take off, to a flexed position to ensure your feet clear the hurdle. This is an important skill to develop, as the same quick change in limb direction is seen during the running stride. This added skill of folding your lower body under yourself to clear a hurdle is the main reason why starting with low hurdles is important. Spend time gaining confidence over low barriers, and as your technique and plyometric ability improves, gradually raise the height of the hurdles.

Although the challenge of clearing a set of hurdles may seem more difficult than performing a series of pogo jumps without obstacles, hurdle jumping also develops rhythm and co-ordination, which is important for maximizing the full benefits of plyometrics. Maximizing jump height and minimizing contact time during repeated pogo jumps relies heavily upon your own internal feedback, whereas having hurdles spaced evenly apart in front of you forces you into establishing a consistent and predictable pattern of jumping.

Although hurdles provide a visual goal to make you jump as high as possible, there is an obvious safety issue with the height of the hurdles you use. When you first introduce mini hurdle jumps (beginner to intermediate), this may initially lower intensity if you simply do enough to just get over the hurdles. Using mini hurdles is, however, necessary in order to develop the skill and confidence required to raise the height later. As your confidence improves, it is likely that a hurdle of moderate height will provide enough of a target to maximize jump height, whilst keeping contact time short. Importantly, though, do not risk an accident by attempting to clear hurdles that are unnecessarily high and actually don’t make you jump any higher!

Fig. 7.1: Hurdle jump sub-progressions.

When you first progress from pogo jumps to hurdle jumps, the series of sub-progressions identified in Fig. 7.1 will help develop your confidence and skill. Over low hurdles initially, start by jumping over a single hurdle and sticking the landing, practising being stiff on landing by dropping no lower than a quarter squat position. Progress next by jumping the hurdle and re-bounding on landing, so you essentially perform a pogo jump. Next, space the hurdles a stride and a half apart to then perform this twice: hurdle-pogo-hurdle-pogo (four jumps). You should then have the confidence to attempt two hurdle jumps in succession. Once you reach three hurdles continuously, walk back to the start and repeat to complete the set (six jumps).

KEY INFORMATION

Pogo jumps are a simple plyometric exercise that doesn’t require any equipment. Attempting to jump over low barriers or hurdles will provide an added challenge but you should ensure your time spent on the ground is minimal.

Pogo Jumps

Aims:

* | To enhance stiffness and elasticity in the Achilles tendon
* | To develop pre-activation of the muscles acting on the ankle and knee

Technique:

Fig. 7.2: Pogo jump mid-air position.

Fig. 7.3: Pogo jump ground contact.

* | Perform a series of vertical jumps in succession, aiming to achieve as much height whilst spending as little time on the ground as possible (see Fig. 7.2)
* | As you leave the ground on each jump, pull the toes tight to the shins so that as you land your foot actively plants against the ground
* | Aim to be stiff at your ankles and knees each time you land (see Fig. 7.3)
* | Place the focus on height and short ground contact rather than the distance you move forwards with each jump

Prescription:

* | Beginner: 2–4 x 6 repetitions (2min recovery)
* | Intermediate/advanced: 3–5 x 6–8 repetitions (2min recovery)

Hurdle Jumps

Aims:

* | To enhance stiffness and elasticity in the Achilles tendon
* | To develop pre-activation of the muscles acting on the ankle and knee
* | To improve the ability to switch between triple extension and triple flexion movement patterns

Technique:

Fig. 7.4: Hurdle jump take-off position (advanced).

Fig. 7.5: Mini hurdle jump landing (intermediate).

* | Place four to eight hurdles in a line separated by a stride length
* | To develop confidence and skill over hurdles follow the series of sub-progressions identified in Fig. 7.1
* | To clear the hurdle, leap explosively upwards and slightly forwards (see Fig. 7.4 for a high hurdle jump)
* | Swing your arms down/back as you dip, and forwards/up as you jump
* | As you leave the ground on each jump, pull the toes tight to the shins so that as you land your foot actively plants against the ground
* | Aim to be stiff at your ankles and knees each time you land (see Fig. 7.5 for the mini hurdle jump)
* | Ensure your ankles, knees and hips are aligned as you land
* | Place your focus on a short ground contact with each jump

Prescription:

* | Intermediate/advanced: 3–5 x 4–8 repetitions (2min recovery)

Depth Jumps

Depth jumping is often considered the purest and most original form of plyometric exercise. Stepping off a step or box allows you to prescribe and progress intensity more accurately, but the main technical principles are very similar to hurdle jumping. Pogo and hurdle jumping can be defined as a cyclical (or continuous) movement, whereas depth jumps are acyclical, meaning you only have to focus on one repetition at a time. This gives you more opportunity to focus on technique and will tend to result in more height being achieved with each jump.

If you are new to plyometrics, start with a drop jump variation, where you step off a low box (20–30cm) and simply attempt to rebound vertically upwards whilst spending as little time on the ground as possible. This is the same technique that is used to measure the ‘reactive strength index’ (see Chapter 4), a marker of your plyometric ability. Placing a box half a stride in front of the box you step off turns a drop jump exercise into a depth jump. Similar to a hurdle, the addition of a second box acts as a target mechanism to force you into leaping higher, but this requires a greater level of skill.

Deciding on the height of the boxes you will use can be quite tricky. Stepping off a low box and onto a high box will force you to spend longer on the ground to achieve the required height, making the exercise more concentric dominant. This will overload the contractile mechanisms of the stretch-shortening cycle to a greater extent. However, moving from a high box to a low box can have the same effect if you are not strong or skilled enough to cope with a high eccentric demand. The intensity of plyometric exercise is measured by the eccentric stress you place upon the lower limb, therefore the height of the box you step off should be your primary consideration. Start with a lower box than you are stepping off, and initially progress by working up to a box of the same height. For example, you could start by stepping off a 30cm box and on to a 20cm box. After four to six weeks you should be working at a 30cm box to a 30cm box, with the same short ground contact. Thereafter, progress by stepping off a 40cm box on to a 30cm, and so on.

Figures 7.6 and 7.9 depict an important technical feature of drop and depth jumps: the initial step off. It is important from both a prescriptive and performance perspective that these exercises are initiated with a step off rather than a jump off, with the supporting leg completely straight. Stepping off (but still landing on two feet) ensures that the box height defines the intensity of the exercise, rather than a jump, which would result in a greater height. Secondly, stepping off allows a dorsiflexed position to be achieved far more easily, which promotes pre-activation on ground contact.

KEY INFORMATION

Stepping off a box and re-bounding immediately into the air or onto another box is a great way to improve your elasticity. Start with a low box (20-30cm) and always ensure you spend as little time on the ground as possible.

Drop Jump

Aims:

* | To enhance stiffness and elasticity in the Achilles tendon
* | To develop the pre-activation of muscles acting on the ankle and knee

Technique:

Fig. 7.6: Drop jump step-off position.

Fig. 7.7: Drop jump ground contact.

Fig. 7.8: Drop jump rebound.

Refer to the ‘Strength Diagnostics’ section of Chapter 4 for instructions. If you scored <30cm on the vertical jump assessment or are completely new to plyometrics, begin by stepping off a 20cm box. Figures 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8 show the sequence of movements.

Prescription:

* | Beginner: 2–4 x 6 repetitions from a 20–30cm box (2min recovery)

Depth Jump

Aims:

* | To enhance stiffness and elasticity in the Achilles tendon
* | To develop the pre-activation of muscles acting on the ankle and knee
* | To improve the ability to switch between triple extension and triple flexion movement patterns

Technique:

Fig. 7.9: Depth jump step-off position.

Fig. 7.10: Depth jump ground contact.

Fig. 7.11: Depth jump landing.

* | Stand on a box or step (beginner 30cm; intermediate 30–45cm; advanced >45cm) with a lower box or a box of the same height positioned a stride away
* | Step off the box by holding one leg in front of you with the toes pulled tight to the shin and allowing your bodyweight to slowly tip forwards (see Fig. 7.9)
* | Contact the ground with two feet and immediately rebound vertically upwards attempting to jump as high as possible (see Fig. 7.10)
* | Place your focus on a short ground contact with each jump
* | Swing your arms down/back as you step off, and forwards/up as you jump
* | Land back on the opposite box with two feet and the legs as straight as possible (see Fig. 7.11)
* | Ensure your ankles, knees and hips are aligned as you land

Prescription:

* | Beginner: 2–4 x 6 repetitions from a 30cm box to a 20–30cm box (2min recovery)
* | Intermediate: 3–5 x 4–6 repetitions from a 30–45cm box to a 30–45cm box (2–3min recovery)
* | Advanced: 3–5 x 6–8 repetitions from a >45cm box to a 30–45cm box (2–3min recovery)

Hopping

Hopping is an activity that children perform almost every time they play, but when performed explosively and for distance it can be a fantastic exercise for developing plyometric qualities. The hop and stick assessment that forms part of the movement screen should provide you with information on how skilled and symmetrical you are at the simplest version of this plyometric. If you lacked stability or control on either side during this assessment, incorporating some hop and sticks into your plyometric training routine is a good place to start. As your skill develops, aim to increase your hop distance. Once you have mastered the technical model for the hop and stick, attempt two hops in a row, aiming to spend a short time in contact with the ground. As your confidence and skill grows, add in more hops until you are able to perform six to eight continuous hops for distance.

Compared to the hurdle and depth jump categories of plyometrics, hopping demands a much higher level of skill and loading through each leg. To enable you to control and stabilize each landing effectively it is important that you have sufficient unilateral strength and follow the technical instructions carefully. It is also helpful to utilize your upper body and free leg as much as possible to counteract the large rotational forces that your body will experience.

Hop and Stick and Continuous Hopping

Aims:

* | Develop explosive unilateral hip strength
* | Unilateral control of high eccentric forces
* | Improve contractile and reflexive mechanisms of stretch-shortening cycle

Technique:

Refer to the ‘Movement Screening’ section of Chapter 4 for instructions and visual aids and the hop and stick.

* | When performing double or continuous hopping, attempt to spend as short a time in contact with the ground as possible whilst still travelling for distance
* | Land on the ball of the foot and ensure the ankles and knees remain stiff on landing
* | As confidence improves, punch the knee of the hopping leg forwards as you leave the ground to maximize contribution from the hip extensor muscles
* | Drive the arms aggressively to counteract rotation
* | Avoid leaning excessively to the hopping leg side

Prescription:

* | Beginner: 2–3 x 6 single hop and sticks for distance (2min recovery)
* | Intermediate: 3–5 x 3 double hop and sticks (6 hops per set) (2–3min recovery)
* | Advanced: 3–5 x 6–8 continuous hops for distance (2–3min recovery)

Bounding

Bounding requires a movement pattern virtually identical to the running action, so is the most specific type of plyometric exercise. It may surprise you, then, that many runners often find bounding incredibly difficult to master! Bounding simply involves running with an exaggerated stride length and time in the air. To achieve this you must generate a higher level of force against the ground, which means you either need to be more explosive or to increase your ground contact time. This also means that the eccentric loading that each leg experiences on landing significantly increases. Therefore bounding improves your ability to generate higher forces (mainly from explosive actions of the hip extensor muscles) and subsequently control greater forces. Bounding essentially provides a very specific and effective form of explosive strength training!

There are a few strategies to learn effective bounding technique, but the simplest method is shown in Table 7b. As with hopping, the easiest way to develop sound technique is to start by practising single repetitions (step and stick). From here you can either start completing continuous steps for distance or performing low velocity bounds, where the focus is on developing height rather than horizontal speed. Either way, at this point the priority should be on progressing forwards, as when running, but with an increase in ‘hang time’ in the air.

To develop strength explosively and propel yourself forwards with greater height, focus on punching the knee into a high position in the air and subsequently driving your foot backwards and down towards the ground rapidly. Equally, your arms will need to drive through full range aggressively to counteract the additional forces and rotations being produced by your legs. A low velocity bound for height should feel as if the legs are working in a piston-type action, driving up and back to deliver an explosive force to the ground.

As skill improves, so too should your speed of movement across the ground. With a longer hang time in the air and snappier leg drive against the ground, you should naturally find that you are travelling forwards at a faster speed. As you approach a speed akin to fast running this is known as a ‘speed bound’ and requires a high level of explosive strength and skill to perform.

KEY INFORMATION

Hopping and bounding develops your explosive hip strength and single leg stability through movements very similar to running. Start by practising single hops and steps, and gradually progress to continuous hopping and bounding for distance.

Step and Stick

Aims:

* | Develop explosive unilateral hip strength
* | High load (eccentric) control at the hip and knee
* | Ability to maintain posture during explosive movement

Technique:

Fig. 7.12: Step and stick start position.

Fig. 7.13: Step and stick landing position.

* | Standing on one leg, perform a quarter squat rapidly (see Fig. 7.12) and leap forwards explosively, landing on the opposite leg
* | Travel forwards as far as possible with the step, but so you are balanced and stable on landing
* | There should be only a slight bend at the ankle, knee and hip on landing (see Fig. 7.13)
* | Ankle–knee–hip should stay aligned during the dip and landing

Prescription:

* | Beginner: 2–3 x 6 single step and stick for distance (2min recovery)

Low and High Speed Bounding

Aims:

* | Develop explosive unilateral hip strength
* | Unilateral control of high eccentric forces
* | Improve all mechanisms of the stretch-shortening cycle to a small extent

Procedure:

Fig. 7.14: Bounding hang position.

* | Run forwards slowly and start exaggerating how long you spend in the air by driving hard against the ground and trying to ‘float’ between steps
* | Aim to develop height initially by driving the knee high (see Fig. 7.14)
* | Land on the ball of the foot and ensure the ankles and knees remain stiff on landing
* | Drive the arms aggressively to counteract rotation
* | As confidence improves, start at a faster running speed that will force you to drive the leg backwards and down underneath the hips more aggressively to maintain velocity
* | Speed bounding should feel like running with an exaggerated and lengthened step pattern

Prescription:

* | Intermediate: 3–5 x 12 bounds/steps for height (6 each leg) (2–3min recovery)
* | Advanced: 3–5 x 12–16 bounds/steps for distance (6–8 each leg) (2–3min recovery)

TYPICAL ERRORS DURING PLYOMETRICS

The typical errors observed during the hop and stick movement screen assessment were addressed in Chapter 4, along with suggestions for correction. The main errors you are likely to experience during bilateral jumping exercises are similar. The most common and important movement errors to be aware of are summarized below.

Ankle–knee–hip misalignment on landing (knee valgus)

Fig. 7.15: Typical poor landing position during jumping exercises.

By far the most important technical error to be aware of during any plyometric exercise is landing in a collapsed knee position (see Fig. 7.15). The reasons and remedies for this movement error are explained in Chapter 4 for ‘hop and stick’. It is important that if you feel or observe your knees collapsing inwards when landing from a jump, hop or step that you lower the intensity of the exercise. For bilateral jumping you should go back to pogo jumping, or practise landing from a low box. For hops and bounding, practise sticking the landing from shorter distances, or start from a two-footed take-off.

KEY INFORMATION

If you feel your knees inwardly collapsing when you land during plyometric exercises, this poses a high risk for injury. Lower the height of your jumps or distance of your hops/bounds and focus on achieving alignment between ankle, knee and hip. Resistance training and gluteal stability exercises may also help.

Long Ground Contact Time

A common technical instruction across all plyometric exercises is to spend as little time on the ground as possible. During the running stride, ground contact times are approximately 0.2sec, and spending longer on the ground means that more muscular work is needed to propel the body forwards, and less reliance is placed upon plyometric qualities. This is because the elastic energy stored in the Achilles tendon dissipates within a quarter of a second. Therefore to develop plyometric qualities, particularly elasticity, we must be strict on spending as little time on the ground as possible.

However, to improve plyometric qualities, the muscles and tendons require a greater amount of eccentric loading than they are accustomed to during the running stride. This is achieved by causing the body to descend from a greater height than it would during a running stride, using activities such as those highlighted in this chapter: all these exercises challenge the nervous system, muscles and tendons to deal with an increase in the forces acting on the body. This presents a problem, however, because if these systems and structures are not trained, or are poor at dealing with this additional stress, the body will require a longer period of time to regain control.

In attempting to overcome this shortcoming, it is important to recognize that there is a fine balance between providing the lower limb with sufficient eccentric loading to drive adaptation, but not so much that ground contact times become too long. It is important therefore that plyometrics exercises are progressed slowly over a long period of time. It is likely that each time you raise the height of a box, or start hopping further, your ground contact times will drift outside the 0.2sec threshold: if you can feel your knees bending excessively and you are struggling to get back into the air from a jump or step, you may need to reduce the intensity slightly. During every plyometric exercise you perform, imagine that the ground is covered in red-hot coals, so each time your foot makes contact with the coals it will be burnt unless you get off the ground and back into the air fast!

Finally, it will be difficult to make progress with your long-term plyometrics training if you don’t also improve your muscular strength. Increasing the levels of eccentric loading will certainly teach your muscles to activate rapidly on landing, but resistance training will also allow you to activate a higher proportion of muscle fibres.

Fig. 7.16: Weak muscles cannot cope with high eccentric landing forces, causing long ground contact.

Poor Use of Hip Extensors

Due to the speed and direction of movement, bilateral jumping exercises tend to be knee and ankle dominant, whereas horizontal plyometrics call upon the hip muscles to a greater extent. Due to the relative strength of the muscles that extend the hip as compared to the knee and ankle, attempts to fully recruit these muscles should always be made. Many runners who possess weak gluteal muscles will tend to find strategies that recruit their knee extensors (quadriceps) during most exercises, so the gluteals are less involved. This includes leaving the torso relatively upright during bilateral jumping movements, adopting a poor pelvis position, or not fully extending the hips during triple extension.

The error of incomplete hip extension was addressed for the ‘box jump’ exercise in Chapter 6. Likewise, knee-dominant movement patterns during hopping were discussed for the ‘hop and stick’ in Chapter 4. An incorrect pelvic position can be the result of a lordotic posture or the gluteals being unable to stabilize this area appropriately: a combination of strength training (Chapter 6), and technical focus during plyometric exercises and postural correction work (Chapter 13) is likely to overcome this error.

KEY INFORMATION

Maintaining a short ground contact time as you progressively increase the intensity and complexity of your plyometric training is crucial. Pretend you are landing on red-hot coals each time your foot strikes the ground!

PLANNING YOUR PLYOMETRICS TRAINING

Prescription of Plyometric Training

Compared to other modes of S&C training, plyometric training prescription is relatively simple. If you are a beginner, prescription should be light on volume and can therefore be performed during the early part of training sessions that include other activities, such as running drills, resistance training and conditioning circuits. Initially, the priority should be on developing skill and landing technique, with an emphasis on ankle–knee–hip alignment and short ground contact times.

Progression…be Cautious!

Performing basic plyometric exercises is likely to feel quite easy as compared to your running training and strength exercises, mainly because the muscle actions you are developing don’t require a considerable amount of muscular work. If you don’t feel out of breath or experience any muscle burn, this is normal. You may therefore feel tempted to progress plyometric training quite quickly.

Training Variable | Beginner | Intermediate (3–18 months) | Advanced (>18 months)
Sessions per week | 2 | 2–3 | 3
Number of exercises per session | 2–3 | 3–4 | 4–5
Total foot contacts per session | 30–50 | 50–100 | 100+
Sets of each exercise | 2–4 | 3–5 | 3–5
Repetitions per set | 4–6 | 4–6 | 6–8
Recovery (minutes) | 2–3 | 2–3 | 2–3

Table 7c: Guidelines for prescribing and progressing plyometric training.

Although it may not feel like it, plyometric training, even for a beginner, is a very stressful form of exercise. The Achilles tendon and nervous system are placed under a high amount of stress as you try to resist the additional forces (eccentric muscle actions) that you are placing on them. This will result in some damage to tendons and fatigue to the nervous system: this is a normal part of the training process, but it can often manifest itself as an intangible form of tiredness. Often athletes report feeling quite ‘flat’ in their training a day or two after a hard plyometric session, or lack some explosiveness when trying to run quickly, despite their muscles and bodies feeling relatively fresh. So it is strongly recommended that you exercise a high degree of caution when introducing and subsequently progressing your plyometric training. Use Table 7c as a guide, and if you think you’ve done too much, you probably have!

KEY INFORMATION

Plyometrics are a stressful form of exercise that demands a high quality approach to training prescription. Perform towards the start of training sessions and initially focus on correct technique.

The most important determinant of when to progress your plyometric training isn’t how long you’ve been doing it for, or how difficult it feels, but how skilfully you are executing the movements. Because of the stress that this type of training places upon your body, and the necessity for high quality movement, initially plyometric training sessions shouldn’t be too time-consuming. Avoid performing plyometric training exercises when fatigued, such as towards the end of any training session. As your competence improves during the exercises, and your volume of foot contacts increases, you may need to dedicate a whole training session to plyometric exercises so it impacts less on other training that you need to complete.

Surface and Trainers

An important consideration when planning your plyometrics training is where it should be carried out. Intuitively, softer surfaces such as foam mats or a sand pit might appear to protect your joints if you are injury prone, but actually the opposite is true. Surfaces with too much ‘give’ force your muscles and tendons to work excessively hard in order to compensate for the lack of stiffness in the surface, so if you perform high volumes of running or plyometric training on very soft surfaces, you run the risk of sustaining an injury. At the other end of the scale, ultra firm surfaces, such as concrete, provide too much resistance, so there is a lower requirement for the tendons and muscles surrounding the joints to do the work and stiffen rapidly. As a result, little adaptation is likely to occur without a high volume of work.

A compromise is a surface that has material properties somewhere in between: an athletics track, a sprung wooden gymnastics floor or a firm grass field are ideal. These surfaces providing sufficient resistance to make the structures of the lower limb work hard to retain stiffness, but they do not have too much ‘give’, which might increase the risk of injury. To some extent there may also be an element of specificity here. For instance, runners who compete frequently over muddy cross-country terrain may benefit more from performing plyometrics on slightly softer grass, whereas a road runner would be best to train on a track or in a sports hall.

A similar discussion may be applied to the type of footwear that you use for your plyometrics training: thus walking boots offer plenty of support and stiffness, so placing less reliance on the intrinsic tissues around your foot and ankle, while going barefoot places a great deal of stress around the lower extremity structures. Again, a middle ground is probably the best and safest solution when performing high intensity plyometric exercises: your running shoes. These offer some, but not excessive cushioning, without negating the demand that needs to be placed on your feet and ankles to drive adaptation – although some barefoot conditioning (including low intensity plyometric exercises) is beneficial for runners. This topic is discussed further in Chapter 9.

KEY INFORMATION

Perform your plyometric training on a surface with some give: an athletics track, sprung wooden floor or hard grass field. Always wear your running shoes for plyometric training.

DESIGNING A PLYOMETRIC TRAINING SESSION

Table 7d: Outdoor plyometric training session for an endurance runner (or young athlete) new to plyometrics.

Based upon the recommendations presented in Table 7c, it should be fairly straightforward to design a mini plyometric training routine. The example shown in Table 7d is for a runner new to plyometric training, and could be included before a resistance training session or a set of conditioning exercises. The focus of this session is around developing skill and coordination in three of the four categories of plyometric exercise. Only seven sets and forty-two foot contacts (total repetitions) are included, which is appropriate for a young athlete or a runner new to this form of training. This routine would be performed two or three times per week, with the number of sets gradually increasing over a period of six weeks.

Table 7e: Plyometric training session for an endurance runner experienced in strength and plyometric training.

Table 7e shows a more advanced plyometric training session that would be used by a well trained runner experienced in strength and plyometric training. Exercises are selected from all four strands of plyometric activity, and foot contacts are in excess of 100. This type of session would be performed three times per week, but could still be combined with other types of S&C activity.

3 | CONDITIONING EXERCISES

Training time lost as a result of sustaining an injury can be very frustrating for both recreational and elite runners. Consistent training month-after-month without enforced time out is the only way to ensure you achieve your goal and fulfil your potential. Approximately three-quarters of endurance runner’s injuries are the result of chronic overuse. Correcting movement patterns, rebalancing asymmetries and improving running technique may help offset the risk of injury, but improving specific tissue tolerance to repetitive loading at key sites susceptible to injury is also likely to reduce risk. This aim of this section is to present exercises that condition musculoskeletal structures in areas of your body most commonly injured based upon a simple model of progressions.

Some coaches and athletes term conditioning exercises ‘prehabilitation’ (or ‘prehab’) but all S&C activities contribute to reducing injury risk in some way, so avoid limiting yourself to only specific conditioning exercises. Equally, the exercise recommendations presented in this section are not necessarily appropriate if you are rehabilitating from an injury. Some of the exercises designed to develop capacity in specific tissues may well be suitable for a late-stage rehabilitation programme, but a physiotherapist who can accurately diagnose and tailor a programme to your individual needs should prescribe this.

TARGET AREAS FOR CONDITIONING

The most common injuries in endurance runners were identified in Chapter 3, along with risk factors that might cause an injury. Importantly, from an S&C perspective many of these risk factors are controllable. Improving mobility around joints, rectifying imbalances with unilateral exercises, and improving posture with stretching and strengthening exercises will all contribute towards lowering the likelihood of injury. Conditioning exercises involve exposing a specific muscle or connective tissue structure to a load or stimulus, as a direct way of building up a higher tolerance to repeated stress.

Making a decision as to the important areas to target with tissue-conditioning exercises isn’t as straightforward as you might think. Knee injuries that account for around a quarter of all endurance runners’ injuries are a good example of how simply finding an exercise that loads that joint won’t work well. The reason a runner suffers from knee pain could be due to many issues, including landing in a knee valgus (inward collapsed) position, weakness in the gluteals, poor foot and ankle mobility, an aggressive heel strike action, or a muscle imbalance between quadriceps and hamstrings. Importantly though, it is unlikely that by directly loading the knee that injuries will be resolved or prevented. Based on the types of tissues vulnerable to injury and the most likely causes of these injuries, the following areas are recommended for targeting with tissue-conditioning exercises:

* | trunk muscles
* | calf and Achilles tendons
* | intrinsic muscles of the feet
* | hamstrings
* | hip-stabilizing muscles

In addition to this, a mobility programme is recommended with a focus on achieving adequate range of movement at the hip, ankle and chest (thoracic spine).

KEY INFORMATION

Injuries can be incredibly frustrating but many are preventable. Conditioning exercises aim to improve the resilience of specific areas of the body to make you less vulnerable to injury. Based upon the main types of injuries that endurance runners suffer, the following areas should be targeted: trunk, foot and ankle, hamstrings and glutes.

CONDITIONING STRATEGY

Fig. 8.1: Exercise principles for injury prevention in specific muscles and tissues.

The approach to prescribing tissue-conditioning exercises should be the same as with any other S&C activity: instead of thinking about movement specificity and trying to link exercises to the running action, consider how the tissue can best be placed under stress to cause a specific adaptation. There are several important adaptations to target when using conditioning exercises shown in Fig. 8.1. The chapters in this section aim to present a series of suitable and progressive exercises that reflect this model for each of the areas identified above.

The first goal when programming conditioning exercises should be to develop a capacity to tolerate repetitive loading in the target areas. Each of the tissues identified as a priority for conditioning come under high amounts of stress every time you go out for a run. The stress causes micro-damage, which needs to be repaired before you run again. If the tissue doesn’t recover sufficiently before you head out for your next run, it will become even more damaged and eventually will start becoming inflamed, which causes pain. Each tissue will have an upper limit for how much stress it can handle before injury occurs, so by improving capacity you are raising this ceiling and also improving the ability of the tissue to repair quickly. An easier way to think about this is that you are developing local endurance at the area.

KEY INFORMATION

Once an adequate level of capacity has been developed in the trunk, foot/ ankle, hamstrings and glutes, these areas would benefit from an improved level of strength and tendon stiffness. The nervous system should also be trained to activate muscles with appropriate timing and co-ordination to protect vulnerable tissues. Non-running based exercises and also specific running drills can be used to achieve this.

To reduce the risk of a tissue becoming damaged during runs it needs more resilience to repeated stress. Therefore by targeting an increase in the thickness and density of connective tissue, this will improve robustness of the area. Changes to the structure of tissues seem to occur under the following conditions: when they are placed under tension for long periods of time, when there is an eccentric (stretch) component to the movement, and when there is some muscular fatigue (known as ‘metabolic fatigue’). Under these conditions, specific signalling pathways are upregulated, which increases protein synthesis and the number of collagen (or connective tissue) fibres in the area. Selecting exercises that have these characteristics and a prescription that is high volume but low intensity is therefore important.

The rate at which a tissue repairs and recovers is a function of a number of things, one of which is its blood supply. If a tissue has a better supply of oxygen and nutrients (which arrive in the bloodstream) it will repair itself more rapidly. Prescribing higher volumes of work that are low intensity creates a higher demand for energy and oxygen in an area. In response to this stimulus, the body creates more blood vessels (known as capillarization) that over time will improve the recovery rate of that tissue.

Once a high level of capacity has been developed in the tissues at risk of injury, it is important to include exercises that improve the strength of the area. For most of the areas that are vulnerable to injury, the surrounding muscles play important roles in protecting the joint by contracting to the right level and at the appropriate time. The adaptations you are looking to achieve at this stage are similar to those described in Chapter 6 on resistance training, and relate to the nervous system being able to recruit more muscle fibres (or ‘motor units’). In addition, many of the muscles responsible for protecting vulnerable joints, such as the calf and gluteal stabilizers, need to act isometrically (or in a static state). To achieve this requires a high level of local strength and ‘stiffness’ in the surrounding connective tissue. Exercise regimes that use a greater intensity of loading provide this stimulus, with a muscle contraction type that reflects the way the muscle is loaded during running (eccentrically and isometrically).

The final two stages of the model aim to provide overload to the tissues and muscles in a more specific manner. Once adequate capacity and strength have been developed, the vulnerable areas need to be conditioned to the specific stresses taking place during the running stride. This is best achieved by incorporating exercises that teach the nervous system to activate muscles in a more co-ordinated and timely manner to protect joints that might be prone to injury. This can be achieved with non-running exercises initially, that focus on rapid loading of a joint or muscle to improve the ability of the nervous system to activate at that specific site (known as intra-muscular co-ordination). The quality of movement and execution during these last two stages of the conditioning model needs to be high, and therefore the volume of work should stay relatively low.

KEY INFORMATION

Improving the ‘capacity’ of a specific area to tolerate repetitive loading will lower your risk of injury and enhance recovery rate. Muscles and connective tissue respond well to high volumes and low intensities of work so prescription of conditioning exercises should reflect this.

These exercises can then be progressed to more specific movement patterns that teach the tissues and muscles to behave correctly during running. These drills essentially manipulate the running technique in a way that provides some additional overload to the specific region being targeted. As most of these running drills are unloaded and movements require whole body co-ordination, the intensity tends to be lower and therefore the volume can be higher. These drills are described in their own chapter later in this section (Chapter 12).

Avoid viewing this model as a discrete set of stages that you must move through in a sequential manner. Based upon your capacity screening results, you should be able to make a decision on how much capacity-type work is required around each of the areas identified as being important. If, for example, you recorded a poor set of trunk assessment scores, you should place a focus on the capacity-building exercises described in the chapter on trunk training (Chapter 8). If your single-leg calf-raise assessment score was good, you can probably place more focus on calf/Achilles strength and rate of activation exercises whilst still maintaining your tolerance to repeated loading with one or two calf capacity exercises each week.

CHAPTER 8: TRUNK TRAINING

If you ask a group of endurance runners which non-running conditioning activities they include in their training programme, it is a guarantee that most will be doing some ‘core stability’ exercises. Core stability seemed to become popular around a decade or so ago and has become one of the most debated and misunderstood areas of the fitness industry. Many practitioners and athletes talk about ‘the core’ like a group of magical muscles, that if strengthened will alleviate all injuries and make you run faster! Such misconceptions can often do more harm than good, result in hours of wasted training time, and at worst, actually cause injury. Although a strong trunk is important to help prevent injury and optimize your performance, unless you have a history of lower back pain, it is no more important than any other area of your S&C. Core stability-type exercises are certainly important to include in conditioning workouts for most runners, but dedicating a whole training session to training your core is unnecessary.

MYTHS ABOUT TRAINING THE ‘CORE’

Myth: Improving the function of a single muscle will help stabilize the lower back: A common misconception about training the core is that one or two muscles hold the key to trunk stability and control. Often the term ‘core’ is interpreted as meaning the abdominal (six-pack) muscles, probably because these are the most visible and impressive looking! This muscle group is responsible for flexing the spine, so is used heavily during exercises such as a sit-up. However, performing dozens of spinal flexion movements in an attempt to condition this muscle is actually very unhealthy for the spine, and will eventually lead to lower back injury.

Similarly, a deeper muscle of the abdomen called the transverse abdominus, which is activated by drawing in the navel, is believed by many to be the most important muscle to train. This belief originates from a series of scientific studies in the 1990s involving patients with lower back pain, which discovered the muscle had a delayed activation pattern during simple movement tasks. This has resulted in many practitioners teaching a ‘hollowing’ technique to contract the muscle in isolation before movement is initiated.

The trunk region contains a complex interwoven network of muscles and connective tissue that forms multiple layers and crosses multiple joints. Each of the muscles in this region attach to the vertebral column, therefore have some role to play in maintaining spinal stability. In a healthy back, attempting to condition or ‘activate’ one muscle in isolation will simply lead to dysfunction and an over-reliance on a single muscle to perform the job of many. In the case of training the abdominals with sit-ups, this is potentially very harmful and should be avoided.

Myth: Having a good ‘core’ reduces the risk of injury:

Many runners will look to improve their core stability in the belief that having a strong core lowers the risk of injury. To some extent this is correct and why this chapter is included! If you have suffered from lower back pain or score poorly on the trunk capacity assessments, including some basic trunk-training exercises is likely to help stabilize your spine and pelvis, which will reduce stress on other vulnerable areas such as the hamstrings. However, conditioning other areas is just as important – in particular, improving basic movement and strengthening the muscles around the hips should be the priority.

Beyond an adequate level of capacity and strength in the trunk region, there is little evidence to suggest that a specific trunk-training programme will lower injury risk further. Some maintenance work is always useful, but learning how to co-ordinate the trunk better when running should be the priority once basic capacity is achieved.

Myth: Training on an unstable surface is best to condition the core:

Another fitness industry fad associated with the term ‘stability’ is the use of equipment such as Swiss balls and the bosu, which create an unstable environment on which to perform exercises. In some scenarios, such as a rehabilitation programme, these training tools do have their uses and will certainly increase levels of muscle activation around the trunk. It is important to bear in mind, though, that instability brings a dramatic reduction in both the force and the range of movement that can be produced, so muscles won’t be conditioned to co-ordinate and cope with the stresses experienced during running. Unstable surfaces are therefore best used for trunk training when the exercise demands little movement or force, such as capacity exercises that require an isometric state of contraction.

Myth: Core stability exercises are a good way of losing fat around the abdomen:

In order to ‘tone up’ or lose fat in a region of the body, it is often assumed that by picking an exercise that isolates that area, it will directly target the fat and improve appearance. Core stability exercises do not tend to involve multi-joint movement patterns and muscle groups, so expend very few calories. If you would benefit from losing some weight, prioritize your running (and other cardiovascular exercise) and improve your diet.

KEY INFORMATION

There are many myths that surround the term ‘core stability’. Conditioning ‘core’ muscles in isolation will potentially lead to dysfunction and increase injury risk. Unless you suffer from chronic lower back pain, performing dedicated sessions to ‘core stability’ exercises is an ineffective use of time and is unlikely to lower your chances of getting injured.

Myth: The trunk should remain in a constant state of contraction:

It is often thought that the trunk should remain constantly stiff and in a permanent state of contraction throughout the running cycle. It can sometimes look this way when the bare torso of an élite athlete is on show, and it certainly looks as if their trunk barely moves. In reality, top athletes are just very good at coordinating the muscles around their trunk and pelvis so they contract and relax in perfect timing with the muscles producing force in their legs. This takes years of training, not only by using specific trunk-training exercises, but also by focusing on technique using running drills that emphasize trunk function.

FUNCTION OF THE TRUNK

The term ‘trunk training’ is preferred to ‘core stability’ in an S&C setting, mainly because ‘core’ suggests that a single deep muscle in the region should be targeted with exercises, and ‘stability’ refers to the rigidity of the spine. Both of these reflect a narrow view of the function of muscles in this region. ‘Trunk’ encapsulates all the muscles that act to contribute towards spinal stability, including those that also act on the hip (hip flexors and gluteals) and shoulder (latissimus dorsi).

To understand the best strategy for conditioning the trunk, and to further debunk the myths associated with traditional core stability training, it is important to clarify the role of this region of the body during running.

To Protect the Lumbar Spine from Repeated Flexion/Extension

The primary role of the trunk is to stabilize the spine and resist perturbations (movements) that may otherwise pull it into an unhealthy position. This protection is achieved through both small deep muscles that provide inter-segmental stability, and larger superficial muscles that provide stability across joints (hips and shoulders). The result of a poorly conditioned trunk, which isn’t able to stabilize at the appropriate instant, is flexion of the lumbar spine. Although the lower back is designed to flex and extend, the structures that make up each vertebrae have a limited tolerance to repeated loading through these movements. Over time, repeated bending of the spine causes these structures to degenerate, which eventually causes lower back pain. This means adopting a sound posture, and co-ordinating trunk muscles to minimize excessive flexion through the spine will reduce the burden on your back.

To Transmit Forces from the Lower to the Upper Extremity

The trunk forms the link between the lower and upper body, so when force is produced against the ground during running, the muscles around the trunk activate to stabilize the region so that energy can be transferred and isn’t wasted. This is achieved through the simultaneous co-contraction of muscles that cross the hip and shoulder, in addition to those that act directly on the spine. A poorly conditioned trunk will disrupt this transfer of force, and as a consequence, compensation at either the hips or in the upper body will occur, which will hinder performance. For example, if your trunk collapses laterally when your foot hits the ground, this will pull the pelvis into a weak position, which in turn affects the position of your knee and ankle. This increases ground contact time, and ultimately the muscles of the leg are forced to work a lot harder to compensate for the lack of strength in the trunk.

KEY INFORMATION

The term ‘trunk training’ is preferred to ‘core stability’ as it is important that correct positioning of the spine is a function of multiple muscles and joints working together effectively. The trunk muscles function to resist excessive bending and rotation movements, and also to transmit energy from the lower to the upper body.

Movement

Although the focus for training the trunk appears to be on creating high levels of stiffness and preventing unwanted movement, the trunk also contributes towards creating movement. The thoracic spine (chest region) should possess an adequate degree of mobility in an extension movement pattern to facilitate shoulder movement. The lumbar spine (lower back) also contributes towards rotating the torso. Although these movements are not required a great deal when running, the trunk should be conditioned to both produce and control movements in these directions.

CONDITIONING FOR THE TRUNK

Table 8a: Exercises and prescription for trunk conditioning.

Learning to use the trunk effectively should be more than just selecting exercises that target specific muscles. As the trunk includes muscles that act on the hips and shoulders as well as the trunk, exercises should be selected that are whole body in nature but target a specific outcome related to trunk function. With this in mind, a list of objectives relating to trunk function are included alongside the generic categories of conditioning exercises in Table 8a.

CAPACITY EXERCISES

If you have never performed any trunk-training exercises before, or you scored poorly in the trunk benchmarking assessments, your first priority should be to consistently achieve a neutral lower back position and perform some basic hold positions in this posture. The exercises in this category require no equipment and only your bodyweight as resistance. There is a whole host of variations and progressions of the start points listed in Table 8b. When you can achieve repeated sets of fifteen repetitions, or can maintain the hold positions for over a minute with good form, you can progress the exercises themselves, or move on to the strength/stiffness category of exercises.

KEY INFORMATION

Trunk training exercises should reflect how this region is designed to function. Capacity exercises should be whole-body in nature and predominantly use bodyweight to resist movement of the spine into flexion, extension and rotation. Strength and rate of activation exercises should use external resistance to further develop this quality and the ability to transmit forces effectively.

Finding a Neutral Back Position

Technique:

Figs 8.2, 8.3, 8.4: Sequence of movements to find a neutral spine position.

* | Adopt a four-point kneeling position with the hands directly under the shoulders and the knees directly under the hips
* | Arch the back as high as possible (like an angry cat), as shown in Fig. 8.2
* | Then pull your navel towards the ground by tightening the muscles down the length of your back (see Fig. 8.3)
* | A neutral position is somewhere in between these two extremes, where the lower back arches towards the ground very slightly and the chest is in a relatively flat position (see Fig. 8.4)
* | Squeeze your shoulder blades together slightly in this neutral position

Front Plank

Aim:

* | To develop trunk capacity (anti-extension in the lower back)

Technique:

Fig. 8.5: Front plank position.

* | Lie face down on the ground
* | Place your elbows directly under your shoulders and support your upper bodyweight on your forearms
* | Raise your body and legs off the ground so you are pivoting from only your feet
* | Find a neutral back position and tighten your trunk and gluteal muscles
* | There should be alignment between your ankles-knees-hips-shoulders (see Fig. 8.5)

Prescription:

* | 3 x 30–60sec static holds, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Regressions:

* | Perform with your knees on the ground

Progressions:

* | Raise one foot off the ground by squeezing the glute
* | Move slowly into a press-up position without flexing or twisting your back
* | Place your elbows on a Swiss ball
* | Place a 5–10kg plate across your mid-back

Heel Taps

Aim:

* | To develop trunk capacity (anti-extension in the lower back)

Technique:

Fig. 8.6: Heel tap start position.

Fig. 8.7: Heel tap bottom position.

* | Lie on your back
* | Flex your hips and knees to a right-angle (see Fig. 8.6)
* | Find a neutral back position: you should be able to just slide your hand underneath the arch in your lower back
* | Maintaining your lower back position, slowly tap one heel to the ground (see Fig. 8.7)
* | Flex at the hip to return to the start position
* | The pressure your lower back exerts on the ground should not change throughout the movement

Prescription:

* | 3 x 12–15 repetitions with each leg, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Regression:

* | Start with both feet on the floor, knees bent at a right-angle, and raise one leg to the start position and back down

Progressions:

* | Tap down with a straight leg
* | Straighten out one leg and then the opposite leg so you reach a double leg hold position; hold this for 5–30sec before returning to the start position and repeating

Superman

Aims:

* | To develop trunk capacity (anti-flexion, extension and rotation in the back)
* | Gluteal and shoulder function

Technique:

See instructions under ‘Movement Screening Assessments’ in Chapter 4.

Prescription:

* | 3 x 12–15 repetitions each side, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Regression:

* | Perform with only one arm or one leg (not simultaneously)

Progressions:

* | Raise the leg higher off the ground by squeezing your gluteal muscle
* | Perform in a press-up position

Side Plank

Aim:

* | Develop trunk capacity (anti-lateral flexion in the back)

Technique:

See instructions under ‘Capacity Tests’ in Chapter 4.

Prescription:

* | 3 x 30–60sec static holds, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Regression:

* | Perform with the knees bent at a right-angle

Progressions:

* | Rotate into a front plank position, but before the elbows reach ground, rotate back to the side plank position
* | Raise the top leg
* | Hold a dumbbell

Side Hold

A partner is required for this exercise.

Aim:

* | Develop trunk capacity (anti-lateral flexion in the back)

Technique:

Fig. 8.8: Side hold position.

* | Lie on your side on a bench or a mat with a plate underneath
* | Shuffle your upper body off the bench/mat until your hip bone is in line with the edge
* | Get your partner to apply pressure to your lower legs so you are anchored when you remove your arms from their supporting position
* | Place your arms across your chest
* | There should be alignment between your ankles–knees–hip–shoulders (see Fig. 8.8)

Prescription:

* | 3 x 30–60sec static holds or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Regression:

* | Shuffle further down the bench/mat so more of your torso is supported

Progression:

* | Hold a light weight across your chest, or place your arms above your head

STRENGTH/STIFFNESS EXERCISES

The strength category of trunk exercises is really where gains in trunk stiffness and function are made. Using additional leverage or load, the exercises are predictable in nature but condition the torso to resist rotation or flexion patterns against higher forces. Most of the exercises here involve both the upper and lower limb so there is a requirement for forces to be transferred through the whole kinetic chain. Basic rotational exercises can be introduced at the capacity stage of programming and some load added at the strength stage. Running involves a diagonal control of forces across the trunk as one leg at a time generates force, which is controlled by the action of the opposite arm. Effective control and the creation of rotational movements can be achieved by using cable chop and lift exercises as well as landmines.

Rollout

Aims:

* | Develop isometric trunk strength (antiextension/anterior dominant)
* | High load force transfer

Technique:

Fig. 8.9: Rollout start position.

Fig. 8.10: Rollout bottom position.

* | Place a barbell on the ground loaded with light circular plates
* | Kneel down and grip the barbell slightly wider that shoulder width with the arms straight and shoulders in line with the bar
* | Move your knees backwards until there is only a slight flexion angle at the hips (see Fig. 8.9)
* | Find a neutral back position and tighten the trunk and gluteals
* | Roll the barbell away from you, allowing your body to descend as one unit (see Fig. 8.10)
* | Pull yourself out of the bottom position, leading the movement with your shoulders
* | The back and hips should remain locked in the same position throughout the set

Prescription:

* | 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery)

Regressions:

Fig. 8.11: Swiss ball rollout bottom position.

* | Use a Swiss ball instead of a barbell (see Fig. 8.11)
* | Use a resistance band tethered to an anchor point and looped around your chest to assist you through range

Progression:

* | Rollout from a press-up position

Hanging Leg Raise

Aims:

* | Develop isometric trunk strength (anterior dominant)
* | Develop hip flexor strength

Technique:

Fig. 8.12: Hanging leg raise start position.

Fig. 8.13: Hanging leg raise top position.

* | Hang from a bar with the elbows straight (see Fig. 8.12)
* | Find a neutral back position and tighten the trunk
* | Raise both legs simultaneously and flex at the knees (see Fig. 8.13)
* | The thighs should reach parallel to the ground in the top position
* | Avoid any flexion through the lower back, and keep the movement slow to avoid swinging

Prescription:

* | 3 x 8–12 repetitions (2–3min recovery)

Regressions:

* | Perform from a position supported by the forearms
* | Raise one leg at a time

Progression:

* | Keep the legs straight during each raise

Landmines

Aims:

* | Develop trunk strength (posterior and lateral dominant)
* | Resist rotation and flexion pattern

Technique:

Fig. 8.14: Landmine start position.

Fig. 8.15: Landmine bottom position.

* | Place one end of a barbell in a corner or on a heavy plate
* | Grasp the barbell just above the collar with both hands between the thumb and forefinger
* | Step away from the barbell until the collar is at eye level
* | Stand with the feet slightly wider than shoulder width apart, bend the knees slightly and tighten the trunk and glutes (see Fig. 8.14)
* | Drop the collar of the barbell down and round until it reaches the hip
* | As the bar drops, allow your outside knee to rotate inwards to avoid twisting excessively through the back (see Fig. 8.15)
* | Initiate the upward movement from the gluteals and trunk rotators

Prescription:

* | 3 x 8–12 repetitions in total (2–3min recovery)

Regression:

* | Move through a reduced range of movement

Progression:

* | Add load to the top of the barbell

Cable (or Band) Holds

Aim:

* | Develop isometric trunk strength (anti-lateral flexion in back)

Technique:

Fig. 8.16: Cable hold position.

* | Set a cable column (or anchor a resistance band) at chest height
* | Grasp a rope/handle (or band) with both hands and stand side-on to the column/band
* | Take one step away and establish a normal standing posture
* | Position the hands in the centre of the chest
* | Ensure the feet are slightly wider than shoulder width apart, that the back is in a neutral position and the shoulders/hips are square (see Fig. 8.16)

Prescription:

* | 3 x 30sec each side (2–3min recovery)

Regression:

* | Use a lighter load/band

Progressions:

* | Increase resistance on the weight stack/band
* | Straighten the arms at chest height and push above the head

Cable Chops

Aim:

* | Develop rotational trunk strength

Technique:

Fig. 8.17: Cable chop start position.

Fig. 8.18: Cable chop bottom position.

* | Set the cable column above head height
* | Grasp a handle or rope with both hands and kneel in a staggered position side-on to the column
* | Take the tension in the weight stack by pulling the cable across slightly (see Fig. 8.17)
* | Find a neutral back position and tighten the trunk and gluteals
* | Pull the cable across the body and push downwards in a diagonal chopping-type action
* | Rotate slightly through the trunk to achieve full range, but avoid any flexion through the back (see Fig. 8.18)

Prescription:

* | 3 x 8–12 repetitions each side (2–3min recovery)

Regressions:

* | Take a wider stance to increase stability
* | Use a lighter load

Progressions:

* | Increase load
* | Perform cable lifts (from low to high)

KEY INFORMATION

Strength and stiffness exercises for the trunk involve using long levers and external load to resist excessive flexion, extension and rotational movements. Rate of activation exercises usually require a partner who can add an element of unpredictability by throwing a medicine ball or attempting to push/pull you off balance.

RATE OF ACTIVATION EXERCISES

The most functional and specific way to train the trunk is with random and unpredictable perturbations caused by external forces that attempt to move the spine out of position. For an endurance runner, this category is perhaps of less importance than the capacity and strength exercises due to the predictable nature of the running movement pattern. However, it is useful to develop skill and timing in the trunk muscles to resist sudden stability challenges.

If available, incorporating unstable equipment (not surfaces), such as swinging weights, and water- or sand-filled bars, is a useful strategy here. As equipment such as this is less accessible, partner-assisted throwing and push/pull-type exercises are also recommended. Short-range medicine ball throwing and catching where the ball is received off centre in different directions is ideal for this purpose, as is resisting pushing and pulls in basic hold positions. The medicine-ball overhead-throw exercises that involve the application of rapid force through the lower body followed by the continual acceleration of the ball through the upper body would also be suitable to use.

Medicine-Ball Throw-Catch

Aims:

* | Develop rapid activation of the trunk musculature against unpredictable perturbations (anti-rotation/extension/ flexion in the back)
* | Explosive force transfer

Technique:

Fig. 8.19: Medicine ball throw-catch start position.

Fig. 8.20: Medicine ball throw-catch release.

* | Stand side-on to a wall or partner holding a 2–6kg medicine ball
* | Squat down slightly and find a neutral position in the back, and tighten the trunk and gluteals (see Fig. 8.19)
* | Using whole body and trunk rotation, throw the ball so it bounces off the wall or is caught by your partner (see Fig. 8.20)
* | As the ball bounces or your partner returns the ball (across your body), stiffen the trunk rapidly to minimize rotation and flexion

Prescription:

* | 3 x 8–12 repetitions each side (2–3min recovery)

Regressions:

* | Reduce the speed with which the ball is thrown
* | Widen the base, or perform in a staggered kneeling position

Progressions:

* | Increase the speed with which the ball is thrown and received
* | Alter the direction and angle that the ball is thrown/received from

Partner Push/Pulls

Aim:

* | Develop rapid activation of the trunk musculature against unpredictable perturbations (anti-rotation/flexion/extension patterns)

Technique:

Fig. 8.21: Partner push/pulls.

* | Stand or sit facing a partner with the palms flat against each other, or both holding a stick or light plate
* | Find a neutral position in the back and tighten the trunk and gluteals
* | Your partner provides rapid and random application of force to your hands or the object being held
* | Resist the perturbations to maintain your static position by focusing on stiffening the trunk against the forces being applied (see Fig. 8.21)

Prescription:

* | 3 x 20–30sec (2–3min recovery)

Regression:

* | Apply perturbations more gently or in an obvious manner

Progressions:

* | Apply a greater level of force to perturbations
* | Partner provides perturbations in more challenging static positions, such as side hold, planks, cable holds

RUNNING DRILLS FOR THE TRUNK

The trunk-training exercises included in the categories above all develop useful qualities, but trunk control and stability is always specific to the movement pattern it is practised in. Some athletes possess very high levels of trunk strength and stiffness during long lever bodyweight and strength exercises, but applying that same degree of rigidity to the trunk when running often results in an awkward and mechanical-looking movement. In the same way as the muscles of the legs are required to contract and relax in a timely fashion to run fast, the trunk muscles need to do the same. Having developed an ability to stiffen the trunk rapidly to protect the spine and transmit force, the running-based drills category of exercises (detailed in Chapter 12) are designed to develop the correct sequencing and timing of trunk activation.

CHAPTER 9: FOOT AND ANKLE CONDITIONING

Arguably the most important area to target when adding supplementary conditioning exercises to your training routine is that of the foot and ankle. Injuries to this region of the body account for approximately 30 per cent of all injuries sustained in runners, and around 25 per cent of all runners will experience an injury to the foot or ankle at some time during their running career. Common injuries include Achilles tendonitis, plantar fasciitis and stress fractures to the small weight-bearing bones of the mid-foot.

The reason for the high incidence of injuries at the foot and ankle may seem obvious. These distal segments of the leg are required to deal with the high initial impact forces every time your foot strikes the ground. The foot and ankle area contains thirty-three joints and over 100 muscles, tendons and ligaments that help to offset these high levels of stress. However, restrictions or poor movement between these structures is likely to cause excessive stress to specific tissues, which may ultimately result in injury. Equally, weakness in bones and muscles caused by poor levels of conditioning will leave the area vulnerable to injury. This chapter will address barefoot drills and ankle-conditioning exercises to enhance the tolerance of tissues in this region to repetitive loading.

FUNCTION OF THE FOOT AND ANKLE DURING RUNNING

The feet are incredibly important for providing the body with support, balance, mobility and feedback about their position on the running surface. If the joints, muscles and nerves that provide feedback are working incorrectly, these important functions will be compromised.

Dorsiflexion at the Ankle Prior to Ground Contact

As your foot prepares to strike the ground, your ankle should be cocked with the toes pulled tight to the shins (known as ‘dorsiflexion’). This prevents the calf muscles being slack as the foot hits the ground so the ankle can stiffen rapidly, allowing the Achilles tendon to stretch and store elastic energy. If you struggle to achieve this position, include the toe raise exercise detailed later in this chapter as a regular part of your conditioning routine. This dorsiflexed ankle position is also a characteristic of most running drills described in Chapter 12, and if practised regularly this should become a consistent feature of your running technique.

Whether you strike the ground with your heel first or your forefoot first isn’t really an issue when it comes to ensuring the foot is functioning correctly. More important is the position that this foot placement occurs relative to your body. The further your foot hits the ground in front of your body, the greater the braking force and therefore the more muscular work you will need to perform to overcome this to maintain your speed.

Pronation during Mid-Stance

As your foot strikes the ground, it should do so slightly on its outer edge (known as ‘supinated’), but this slight foot tilt is subtle, so avoid consciously thinking about it. The body will always try to achieve a stable position quickly after initial contact, to allow the Achilles tendon to do its job by storing elastic energy. This is achieved with the big toe down on the ground, so the foot should roll forwards and towards the inside edge (known as ‘pronation’) during the mid-stance phase. Pronation also serves to unlock your foot using the ‘subtalar joint’, thereby acting as a protective mechanism and reducing the stress on other structures. Some studies have shown that runners who under-pronate have twice as many bone injuries as compared to those who pronate normally.

The pronation action of the foot as it rolls from an outside to a neutral position during stance is not only important for providing stability and absorption of forces, but it also acts as the catalyst to producing important rotations of bones in the leg. If you are restricted in pronation, these joint actions won’t occur, which therefore places excessive stress on the knee, hip and lower back. Runners who are stiff in their subtalar joint are likely to have high foot arches and excessive wear on the outside of their trainers. Although this pronation action is important, many runners suffer from ‘over-pronation’, where their ankle appears to collapse inwards whilst it is on the ground. This is likely to overstress the structures on the inside of the foot, resulting in a collapsed foot arch (‘flat footed’), and again, will cause compensation further up the body. Over-pronation usually affects the knee due to excessive rotation of the shin bone (tibia) in the lower leg.

Ankle Stiffness during Mid-Stance

Throughout this mid-stance phase the ankle should remain still. After a slight flexion upon landing, a rapid activation of the muscles in the calf and shins should prevent any additional collapse. The importance of having high levels of strength (particularly eccentric strength) in these muscles is therefore crucial. Achieving this isometric or static state of muscular contraction rapidly allows any additional stretch to take place in the Achilles tendon, thereby storing energy that can be released during push-off.

Supination and Big Toe Function during Push-Off

When the foot transitions into a push-off position, the weight shifts towards the forefoot and the ankle should roll outwards, back into a supinated position. This supination is important to achieve, as it makes the foot rigid again so that force is transferred from the ankle into the ground. This causes a tightening of the connective tissue in the feet, and any elastic energy that was stored will be released and will contribute towards propulsion.

The big toe is also incredibly important during the final push-off phase as it provides stability and acts to lock the foot against the ground, so energy stored in the Achilles and power from the hips can propel the body forwards. If your big toe lacks flexibility into extension, this final propulsive phase of your stride will be compromised.

Prescription of Motion-Control Trainers and Orthotics

Almost every specialist running shop you go into today will have a facility to analyse your gait pattern. It is likely that you will be categorized an ‘over-pronator’, ‘underpronator’ or ‘supinator’, and therefore given shoes or orthotics to force your foot to land and behave in the right manner. In some cases this may well help you, and correct a bad habit you’ve developed. In the majority of cases, however, it is unlikely that your foot landing position is a direct cause of poor foot or ankle function. It is much more likely that a weakness, imbalance or dysfunction further up your body is resulting in altered joint actions in your legs and ultimately manifesting itself at the ankle with incorrect foot motion. Attempting to fix a problem in your hips or back by wearing a pair of running shoes that changes your foot position is likely to lead to compensation somewhere else, which ends up doing more harm than good! If you are diagnosed as being a ‘pronator’ or a ‘supinator’ it would be advisable to be screened by an experienced physiotherapist, or to visit a gait analysis lab, where a more rigorous assessment of your whole running action can be performed.

KEY INFORMATION

The foot and ankle contain numerous joints and muscles that are crucial to helping you run efficiently. There are several important positions and movements that your foot and ankle must achieve prior to and during ground contact. Learning how to use your feet and ankles correctly, and strengthening the muscles in this area will reduce your risk of injury and improve performance.

BAREFOOT RUNNING

Over the last decade, barefoot or ‘natural’ running has become incredibly popular. Maybe the publicized tales of the Tamahumara tribe of barefoot ultra-distance runners from the mountains of Mexico sparked the interest. Reports of children in East Africa, a breeding ground for the world’s best distance runners, running to and from school without shoes, have also been well documented. Or perhaps sport companies with their marketing of ‘barefoot-style’ minimalist trainers have been solely responsible for the craze. As a method of conditioning the feet, it is certainly worth examining whether barefoot running has any merit.

Arguments For

It is often suggested that the reason for the high proportion of injuries around the foot and ankle in Western runners is due to weakness in the lower leg, brought about by years of wearing highly cushioned trainers. Proponents of barefoot running suggest that having our feet protected by expensively engineered trainers that incorporate foam walls, gels, air pads and motion control has resulted in wastage to our intrinsic foot musculature, and forced our joints to move abnormally. This in turn results in either direct injury to structures around the foot and ankle, or more likely, an alteration in running style that causes injury to another area of the body.

In addition, there is some scientific evidence that indicates that running without shoes on completely alters your running style. With cushioned trainers on, it is easy to land on almost any part of your foot without causing major discomfort. However, when trainers are removed, it becomes very difficult not to land on your forefoot. This results in a better foot strike position under your hips, and a better use of your Achilles tendon for propelling you forwards. Essentially, this is because it actually hurts to heel strike unless you have something there to cushion the blow! Without shoes on, it appears the foot and ankle are suddenly forced to function as nature intended them to. Advocates of this theory will therefore advise you to bin your modern running shoes and change to running barefoot or using minimalist running shoes.

Arguments Against

The problem with barefoot running is that it carries a very high risk of injury. Wearing comfortable cushioned trainers for decades will certainly have resulted in under-used muscles and joints around the foot, and if our feet are taken out of this protected environment and exposed to repeated stress, they won’t have much tolerance before they start to become damaged and painful. The other issue in Western society is that it is often impractical to run around without shoes on, because almost everywhere we go there are sharp objects and hazards that we don’t notice or need to avoid, as our feet are always protected.

Also, more recent scientific studies that have investigated the impact of wearing minimalist-style trainers or no footwear at all as compared to wearing conventional running trainers, are actually showing the benefits of going barefoot are not as impressive as people first thought. Injury rates appear to be about the same no matter what footwear is worn, technique is more robust than early experiments demonstrated, and running economy doesn’t make dramatic improvements following a period of barefoot running. From a performance perspective, there are also some benefits in the material properties of running shoes, which possess some decent elasticity and can therefore contribute towards propulsion. We can obviously never rely on these completely, however, because most of the energy will come from our own elastic recoil mechanism in our Achilles tendon.

KEY INFORMATION

Running barefoot or in minimalist trainers has become incredibly popular over the last decade. Removing your trainers is likely to improve your running technique but brings with it a high amount of stress that may cause injury. The careful inclusion of some barefoot walking and running is likely to strengthen your feet and improve your running efficiency.

The Verdict

Based upon this short discussion, is there actually any value in barefoot running, or should you wear trainers for all your runs? The answer probably lies somewhere in between: carry on running most of your mileage in running trainers that are suited to you, but incorporate some barefoot conditioning drills to help strengthen your feet and mobilize the joints. In terms of changing some of your running training to barefoot, however, you should be very cautious and follow the following recommendations:

* | Ensure you spend as much time as possible doing everyday indoor activities without shoes on
* | Perform six to eight weeks of barefoot conditioning exercises initially (see Table 9a)
* | Progress your barefoot conditioning to a low volume and intensity of running drills without shoes, such as sotos, foot tack, skips and high knees (see Chapter 12)
* | Incorporate barefoot running during a training period where your mileage is low
* | Run barefoot initially for no more than five minutes at a slow speed before putting your trainers back on
* | Run on a surface that isn’t too soft or too hard: concrete and sand are poor choices, firm grass or an athletics track are good ones
* | Ensure the running surface is free from sharp objects

Paired Exercises | Distance/repetitions | Sets | Recovery
Toe scrunch | Heel–toe walk | 20 reps/10m | 2 | None
Toe walk | Heel walk | 10m | 2 | None
Active plant walk | Outside foot walk | 10m | 2 | None
High catch pogo jump | - | 20 reps | 2 | 1 min
Pogo jumps | - | 20 reps | 1 | 1 min
Zig-zag pogo jumps | - | 20 reps | 1 | 1 min

Table 9a: Suggested barefoot conditioning session for a runner with no experience of barefoot running.

Barefoot Conditioning Drills

The exercises that are recommended for foot and ankle conditioning are a reflection of how the foot and ankle function during running, which has been described earlier in this chapter. To improve foot function, almost any of the bodyweight exercises and mobilizations (see Chapter 13) covered in this book can be performed barefoot. Importantly, this will help improve balance and stability qualities, which are linked to how effectively the nerves around the foot detect changes in position and provide feedback to the central nervous system.

To develop the tissue integrity and strength of the intrinsic muscles of the feet, barefoot walking drills focus on providing overload to different regions of the foot, by simulating different movements and joint actions of the running stride. The first three rows of Table 9a provide recommendations for these drills. Low-level skipping and jumping exercises performed barefoot provide a higher level of stress to the feet so should be introduced carefully. Three examples are shown in the bottom three rows of Table 9a.

Barefoot walking exercises can easily be completed back-to-back without rest. The suggested exercises are paired together to work different muscles or parts of the foot to prevent excessive fatigue. Perform each over 10–15m, one travelling out, and the other coming back. When you move on to the low-level jumping exercises, take a short break of around a minute while you walk back, to allow your muscles sufficient time for recovery.

As indicated in the recommendations provided in the list above, beyond this basic barefoot routine, exercises can be progressed to performing the running drills detailed in Chapter 12 in barefoot. Start with a relatively low volume (five to six sets over 15–20m with a slow walk-back recovery) and gradually build it up over time. After a few months of these conditioning exercises and barefoot running drills, you should have sufficient integrity in the structures around your feet to start incorporating 5–10min easy jogs in barefoot on firm grass or an athletics track.

KEY INFORMATION

Barefoot drills mainly involve walking over a distance of 10-15 metres on different parts of your foot. Be wary of introducing too much volume of jumping, skipping and running exercises without trainers at first as this may result in injury.

Toe Scrunch

Aims:

* | Develop mobility in the joints of the mid-foot and toes
* | Enhance strength in the toe flexors and plantar fascia

Technique:

Fig. 9.1: A good foot-strengthening exercise is to pull yourself across a carpet or towel by scrunching your toes.

See Fig. 9.1.

* | Stand on a towel (or a surface with low friction)
* | Pull the towel towards you by clawing at the ground with your toes
* | Ensure your ankles and knees remain completely still throughout the exercise

Prescription:

* | 2 x 20 reps performed as a pair with another barefoot exercise

Progression:

* | Alternate one foot at a time, or perform all on one foot

Heel–toe Walk

Aims:

* | Develop mobility in the joints of the mid-foot (pronation) and toes
* | Enhance the capacity of the calf and shin muscles

Technique:

Fig. 9.2(i): Heel–toe walk, step forwards – roll from your heel slowly across the sole of your foot and into a calf raise.

Fig. 9.2(ii): Heel-toe walk, push off.

See Figs 9.2(i) and 9.2(ii).

* | Step forwards with the toes pulled tight to the shin so your foot hits the ground on your heel
* | As you transfer your weight over your foot, roll across your mid-foot ensuring that your ankle and foot roll slightly inwards into a neutral position
* | Actively push off the ball of your foot, aiming to lift your hips as high as possible
* | Finish the movement by rolling on to your tip toes as you step into the next repetition
* | Take small steps forwards of around a foot in length

Prescription:

* | 2 x 10m performed as a pair with another barefoot exercise

Progressions:

* | Hold the top position for several seconds to increase the emphasis on calf capacity
* | Perform in a slightly squatted position to develop ankle mobility and stability at the knees

Toe Walk

Aims:

* | Develop mobility in the toe and forefoot joints
* | Stretch the plantar fascia
* | Enhance the capacity of the calf muscles and toe extensors

Technique:

Fig. 9.3: Toe walk – travel forwards on your tip toes, with your hips as high off the ground as possible.

See Fig. 9.3.

* | Rise up on to your tip toes, standing as tall as possible
* | Keeping the knees straight, take steps forwards so only your toes are in contact with the ground
* | Take small steps of about a foot in length

Prescription:

* | 2 x 10m performed as a pair with another barefoot exercise

Progression:

* | Rock the weight back slightly but keep the toes pulled up. Perform the walk on the balls of the feet

Heel Walk

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity of the shin muscles and toe extensors

Technique:

Fig. 9.4: Heel walk – travel forwards with the weight rocked back on to your heels and the ball of your foot off the ground.

See Fig. 9.4.

* | Pull your toes tight to your shins so your weight is through your heels and toes and the ball of the foot is off the ground
* | Push your hips back slightly to maintain balance
* | Without allowing your toes near the ground, walk forwards on your heels
* | Take small steps forwards of about a foot in length

Prescription:

* | 2 x 10m performed as a pair with another barefoot exercise

Progression:

* | Perform a duck walk: turn your toes outwards by rotating your ankles, and walk forwards with your feet in this position

Active Plant Walk

Aims:

* | Develop mobility in the toe and forefoot joints
* | Actively stretch the plantar fascia
* | Enhance the capacity of the ankle flexor and toe extensor muscles
* | Develop the rate of muscle activation in the calf muscles

Technique:

Fig. 9.5: Active plant walk – pull your toes tight to your shin and actively plant them into the ground as you walk forwards.

See Fig. 9.5.

* | Rise on to the ball of your foot, standing as tall as possible
* | As you lift one leg from the ground, pull the toes tight to the shin
* | Step forwards and as the foot strikes the ground, actively plant the ball of the foot on the surface
* | The foot should plant actively so it slaps the surface
* | Take small steps forwards of about a foot in length
* | Maintain a straight knee and high hip position throughout the set

Prescription:

* | 2 x 10m performed as a pair with another barefoot exercise

Progression:

* | Perform whilst holding a barbell or dumbbells (see Ankle Conditioning ‘Rate of Activation’ exercises)
* | Ankling: bounce along by switching the feet in mid-air so you hop from one to the next

Outside Foot Walk

Aims:

* | Develop outside ankle mobility (supination)
* | Improve the strength of the ankle invertor muscles
* | Enhance ankle proprioception

Technique:

Fig. 9.6: Outside foot walk – travel forwards on the very outside edge of your foot.

See Fig. 9.6.

* | Rock your weight on to the outside edge of both feet without fully rolling the ankle
* | Take small steps forwards of about a foot in length, always making contact with the ground on the outside edge of the foot

Prescription:

* | 2 x 10m performed as a pair with another barefoot exercise

Progression:

* | Perform the toe walk but with your weight shifted to the inside edge of your foot

High Catch Pogo

Aims:

* | Develop mobility in the toe and forefoot joints
* | Actively stretch the plantar fascia
* | Enhance the capacity of the ankle flexor and toe extensor muscles
* | Develop the rate of muscle activation in the calf muscles

Technique:

Fig. 9.7(i): High catch pogo – on your tip toes, bounce from the ankles quickly so you leave the ground by a few inches.

Fig. 9.7(ii): Land in a high position back on your tip toes.

See Figs 9.7(i) and 9.7(ii).

* | Rise on to the ball of your foot, standing as tall as possible
* | Bounce from the ankles so you leave the ground a small amount
* | The bounce should be small so the heels don’t touch the ground
* | As the feet land, catch high, so the heel remains off the ground and the hips stay as high as possible
* | Hold the top position for a second or two before the next repetition
* | Maintain a straight knee position during the bounce and landing

Prescription:

* | 1 x 20 repetitions (1min recovery before next exercise/set)

Progression:

* | Perform additional sets
* | Push off with two legs and catch high on one
* | Perform whilst holding a light barbell or dumbbells (as an ankle conditioning ‘Rate of Activation’ exercise)

Pogos (and Zig-zag Pogos)

Aims:

* | Enhance the capacity of the ankle flexor and toe extensor muscles
* | Develop the rate of muscle activation in the calf muscles
* | Improve the storage and return of elastic energy from the Achilles tendon and connective tissue in the feet
* | Enhance ankle proprioception (zig-zag and lateral versions)

Technique:

Fig. 9.8(i): Zig-zag pogo left – bounce a low height on each side of a line, focusing on spending a short time on the ground.

Fig. 9.8(ii): Zig-zag pogo right.

See Figs 9.8(i) and 9.8(ii).

* | Perform repeated low height pogo jumps (see Chapter 7), spending as little time on the ground as possible
* | As you leave the ground pull the toes tight to the shins so that as you land they actively plant into the surface
* | Aim to bounce along using your ankles with minimal bend at the knees on each landing
* | Progress forwards a small distance at each repetition, or bounce either side of a line in a zig-zag pattern

Prescription:

* | 1 x 20 repetitions (1min recovery/walk back before the next exercise/set)

Progression:

* | Perform additional sets
* | Shorten the contact time and increase the height
* | Perform pogos (or zig-zag pogos) laterally or backwards
* | Perform mini pogo hops on one leg at a time (10 reps each leg)

ANKLE CONDITIONING EXERCISES

The Achilles tendon comes under a high degree of stress during the running stride, so initially it is recommended to develop capacity in the calf muscles and Achilles using exercises that place this region under tension for long periods of time. Particularly if you scored less than fifteen repetitions on the single-leg calf-raise assessment, you should aim to incorporate capacity exercises for the calf two to three times per week. This can be achieved just by using two versions of calf raise: a standard straight-leg calf raise and a bent-leg variation. The straight-leg version allows the Achilles and calf to be worked through full range of movement, which strengthens the joint in the weaker parts of its range and stimulates the growth of connective tissue. The bent-leg variation targets the soleus muscle to a greater extent, which tends to be the weaker muscle in the calf. A bent-leg position also hits similar angles at the knee and ankle to those seen during the running stride, so transfer to performance is likely to be greater.

Although calf raises are essential for developing integrity of the calf and Achilles complex, it is also important to strengthen the muscles that work in opposition, which run up the front of your shin. These are much weaker, but play an important role in stabilizing the ankle when the foot hits the ground and in protecting you from injuries such as shin splints. Resisting into dorsiflexion using a plate lightly balanced on your foot is an ideal exercise.

The movements of inversion and eversion are often neglected when it comes to conditioning the ankle. Flicking the ankle from side to side so the sole of the foot turns inwards and outwards moves the foot into inversion and eversion respectively. The muscles involved in producing these movements are quite long and thin so can’t produce a high level of force, but along with the ligaments and tendons around the ankle, they play an important role in stabilizing the ankle and ensuring that movement is controlled in the right way as your foot hits the ground. The best strategy for developing capacity in these tissues is by resisting inversion and eversion with a theraband or light resistance band attached to your foot, which is anchored at an angle of around 45 degrees relative to your body.

If you can comfortably achieve fifteen repetitions on all three sets of work on these exercises, the next step is to hold a dumbbell for the calf raises, increase load for the toe raises, and use a stiffer band for the ankle eversions/inversions.

Once sufficient capacity has been developed, improving strength in the ankle should become the priority. The muscles of the calf are required to activate to a high level as your foot hits the ground to stabilize the ankle and knee, so developing isometric and eccentric strength is crucial. One strategy is to simply increase the load and lower the number of repetitions on the calf-raise exercises used to enhance capacity. Performing the bent-leg variation of the calf raise in a seated position removes the need to remain standing for long periods with the leg bent at the knee.

Table 9b: Exercises and prescription for ankle conditioning.

The two most important exercises in this category are the calf-press holds, and a version of the calf raise that focuses on the eccentric (downward) phase of the movement. For the calf press holds, a resistance machine is required, which allows a static extended ankle position to be held against a heavy load. For eccentric calf lowers, you should select a weight heavier than you can lift in the upward phase of a calf raise for a single repetition on one leg. Against this supramaximal load, you should push the weight up into the top position with both legs before removing one foot and lowering the load slowly using just one leg.

In addition to teaching the calf muscles to brace against high levels of force, you also need to condition them to respond rapidly. The eccentric loading forces your ankle experiences at ground contact are applied very quickly, so developing the ability to activate the muscles at a fast rate is key. As an introduction to this type of work, perform the active plant walk as described in the barefoot walking drills section of this chapter, but whilst holding a relatively heavy load. This can be progressed to a single-leg switch variation (known as ‘ankling’), which forces you to receive the weight on just one leg.

Plyometric exercises, which provide higher levels of eccentric loading than during running, are ideal for developing the calf’s ability to activate rapidly. Start with double-leg drop jumps from a low height, and progress to performing off one leg only. Similarly, any running drills and other unilateral plyometrics, such as skipping and hopping, will develop the calf’s ability to tolerate high forces on landing. With rate of activation and specific drills, the loading demands are high, and therefore the ankle and foot are under considerable stress. Care should therefore be taken when incorporating these exercises into your conditioning programme for the first time. Exercises in this category should be introduced following a period of capacity and strength work for the ankle first.

KEY INFORMATION

The muscles around the ankle and the Achilles tendon are subjected to high amounts of stress during running, so it is crucial they possess an adequate level of strength. Develop capacity and strength in this area with different versions of the calf raise exercise and resisted movements in other directions.

Calf Raises

Aim:

* | Enhance the capacity of the calf muscles and Achilles tendon

Technique:

Refer to the ‘Capacity Tests’ section of Chapter 4 for instructions.

* | The angle of the knee should remain consistent throughout: straight or with a slight bend
* | For eccentric calf lowers, use both legs to reach the top position before removing one and lowering the heel to a 2–3sec count

Prescription:

Fig. 9.9: Weighted single-leg calf raise – hold a dumbbell to progress the single-leg calf raises.

* | Capacity: 2–3 x 12–15 reps with bodyweight alone or with a light dumbbell (see Fig. 9.9)
* | If you cannot complete 12 reps single leg, perform as many as possible on one leg and then complete the remaining repetitions with both legs
* | Strength: 2–3 x 8–12 reps holding a dumbbell (see Fig. 9.9) or using the Smith/calf raise machine

Progression:

* | Increase the load used

Toe Raises

Aim:

* | Enhance capacity of the shin muscles

Technique:

Figs 9.10(i) and 9.10(ii): Toe raises – with your heel on the edge of a plate, lightly hold a plate across the bridge of your foot and pull the toes tight to your shin.

See Figs 9.10(i) and 9.10(ii).

* | Sit on a bench or step so your knees are at approximately a right angle
* | Place a plate or thick book on the ground
* | Position your heel on the plate so the ball of your foot overhangs and points towards the ground
* | Place a light load across your toes and hold it gently in place
* | Pull the toes tight to your shin before lowering them back to the ground in a controlled fashion

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 reps with a light plate

Progression:

* | Increase the load used

Inversions and Eversions

Aim:

* | Enhance the strength and capacity of the ankle inversion and eversion muscles

Technique:

Fig. 9.11(i): Tether a resistance band to a stable object and attach the other end around your toes: flick your ankle across for inversion.

Fig. 9.11(ii): For eversion, flick your ankle outwards.

See Figs 9.11(i) and 9.11(ii).

* | Sit in a comfortable position with your legs outstretched and ideally your foot hanging over the edge of a bench or couch
* | Tether a theraband or light resistance band around your foot so it is anchored to a stable object at a 45-degree angle to your body
* | Allow your ankle to be pulled by the band so it is fully inverted or everted
* | Flick your ankle across against the resistance before returning to start position under control
* | Switch feet first (so you perform inversion on one side and eversion on the other) before changing the position of the band to load in the opposite direction

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 reps with bodyweight alone or with a light dumbbell

Progression:

* | Use a stiffer band that applies a higher level of resistance
* | Ask a partner to push against the inside or outside of your foot, and resist against it

Seated Calf Raises

Aim:

* | Improve the strength of the deep calf muscles (soleus) and the Achilles tendon

Technique:

Fig. 9.12: Seated calf raises – sit on a bench with the balls of your feet on a plate and perform calf raises.

See Fig. 9.12.

* | Sit on a bench or step so your knees are at approximately a right-angle
* | Place a plate or thick book on the ground
* | Position the ball of your feet on the plate so your heels overhang and you can feel a stretch in your calf
* | Place a plate across your thigh and hold it in place
* | Raise the heels as high as possible by squeezing your calf tight
* | Lower them back to the ground in a controlled fashion

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 8–12 repetitions

Progression:

* | Perform on one leg at a time
* | Place more load across your thigh

Calf Press Hold

Aim:

* | Improve the isometric strength of the calf muscles and Achilles tendon

Technique:

Fig. 9.13: Calf press holds – perform a calf raise on a leg-press machine and hold the top position on one leg.

See Fig. 9.13.

* | Use a leg-press resistance machine for this exercise with the seat set as far back as possible from the foot platform
* | Extend both legs to raise the weight stack
* | Place the balls of both feet at the bottom of the platform so the heels overhang
* | Perform a double-leg calf raise by pressing hard through the balls of both feet
* | Soften your legs so you have a slight bend at the knee
* | Remove one foot
* | Continue pressing hard against the resistance so your heel doesn’t drop
* | Switch sides after a count of 5sec and repeat for 60sec in total
* | Use a resistance heavy enough so you are fighting to hold a static position at the ankle and knee

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 60sec hold total, with switches every 5sec (6 x 5sec each side)

Progression:

* | Perform longer holds before switching sides: 10–30sec
* | Increase the load being held

Loaded Active Plant Walk

Aim:

* | Develop the rate of muscle activation and isometric strength in the calf muscles

Technique:

Figs 9.14(i) and 9.14(ii): Active plant walk – carrying a barbell or dumbbells, pull your toes tight to your shin and actively plant them into the ground as you take small steps forwards.

See Figs 9.14(i) and 9.14(ii).

* | Place a barbell on your back, ideally unracking it from a squat stand, or alternatively hold a set of dumbbells
* | Rise up on to the balls of your feet, standing as tall as possible
* | As you lift one leg from the ground, pull the toes tight to your shin
* | Step forwards, and as the foot strikes the ground, actively plant the ball of the foot on the ground surface
* | The foot should plant actively so it slaps the surface
* | Take small steps forwards of around a foot in length
* | Maintain a straight knee and high hip position throughout the set

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 6–8 reps on each leg (12–16 small steps)

Progression:

* | Increase the load being carried
* | Lighten the load but perform the ‘ankling’ exercise by bouncing from one foot to the next using only the ankles

CHAPTER 10: HAMSTRING CONDITIONING

The detailed analysis of running biomechanics presented in Chapter 3 mentioned the role that the hamstrings play in controlling and stabilizing movement during running. Compared to sprinting, it is often thought that hamstring involvement is fairly minimal during slower speed running. However, the hamstrings have a number of important functions during running at any speed, and if left untrained, you run the risk of sustaining a hamstring injury, particularly when performing higher intensity running sessions.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE HAMSTRINGS DURING RUNNING

The hamstrings are composed of three muscles that are all ‘bi-articular’, which means they cross two joints: the hip and the knee. This means they primarily function to both extend the hip, such as during the push-off phase in running, but also to flex the knee. Due to this dual action the hamstrings possess, they are only really capable of doing one job well at a time, either to extend the hip or flex the knee. The inability to do both simultaneously is termed ‘active insufficiency’. The role of the hamstring during running is quite complex, but the muscle group has several important roles that inform the type of exercises that should be prescribed.

Generating Force during Push-off

As addressed in Chapter 3, from a performance perspective the hamstrings play a crucial role in generating force against the ground when you push off. It is thought that the hamstrings contribute about one third of the force generated during the last part of the push-off phase when running. The other two thirds is derived from your gluteal muscles, which demonstrates the importance of strengthening both sets of muscles simultaneously, with exercises that primarily involve hip extension.

Resisting Eccentric Forces as the Leg Swings Forwards

Although not a major issue when running at slow speeds, the portion of the running cycle where your hamstrings come under most tension is when your thigh reaches its highest point of recovery and your lower leg swings forwards. During this movement the hamstrings are forced to resist an eccentric contraction to slow the forward movement of your lower leg and start to pull your foot down towards the ground. As the speed at which your leg swings through is relatively slow during endurance running compared to sprinting, this isn’t a common mechanism of injury. However, the danger comes when you attempt to sprint at the end of a race or perform some faster pace interval training, and suddenly your hamstrings have to work much harder.

Contrary to popular belief, the hamstrings have no role to play in flexing the knee to bring the heel towards your butt as it recovers. During the final part of push-off and as your heel whips up towards your butt there is very little involvement from the hamstring. Exercises such as heel flicks and hamstring curls are therefore poor choices when it comes to strengthening the muscle group.

Transfer Energy into the Lower Leg during Recovery

Your hamstrings attach below the knee, so if they work effectively to control the swing of your lower leg during recovery they also transmit mechanical energy to your gastrocnemius in your lower leg. This transfer of energy helps your calf muscles to achieve ‘pre-activation’ and store energy prior to ground contact. Strengthening hamstrings to resist eccentric forces and function well under fatigue is therefore an important consideration.

Stabilize the Knee at Ground Contact

Your hamstrings are also called upon heavily as your foot hits the ground and you attempt to resist your knee collapsing under the weight of your body. To maximize the contribution you get from your stretch-shortening cycle, and particularly the energy stored in your Achilles tendon, the muscles around your knee (quadriceps, hamstrings and gastrocnemius) need to contract rapidly to stabilize your knee. Quite often, endurance runners tend to rely on the quadriceps to perform this action, which in the long term results in a marked imbalance between the strength of these two opposing muscles. If the hamstrings aren’t functioning or ‘switching on’ properly at ground contact to control the flexion of your knee, this can overstress the joint and potentially lead to injury.

Position the Foot at Ground Contact

If you have a tendency to over stride or heel strike, you will tend to use your hamstrings to a greater extent than a runner who lands on the front part of their foot. This is because your hip will move through a greater degree of active extension, so the hamstring will need to work hard to pull your foot back underneath you. Injuries can often occur when you are fatigued or running fast in this scenario, as the hamstring works hard to stiffen the knee position and also extend the hip simultaneously.

KEY INFORMATION

The hamstrings play a number of important roles during running that include: developing force during push-off, controlling the lower leg as it recovers through, and stabilizing the knee when the foot is on the ground.

Greater Contribution when Fatigued

When you run for extended periods of time or complete an exhaustive effort, your ability to stabilize each foot strike and apply force becomes compromised. As fatigue builds up, this unintentionally starts to alter your muscle recruitment patterns. Ultimately you start spending longer in contact with the ground, and find it more difficult to push off and maintain your stride length. Importantly, your hamstrings are one of the muscles that start to become more active in an attempt to maintain your pattern of running. This means that there is a high reliance upon the hamstrings to keep functioning optimally even when you are at your most fatigued.

DEVELOPING EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH AT PUSH-OFF

Exercises for your hamstrings that involve the development of force concentrically are very important, as this is the action required to push off on your stance leg. As the gluteals are so heavily involved in this action, it is illogical to attempt to strengthen the hamstrings to generate high levels of concentric force in isolation. So selecting exercises that contain hip extension as their primary movement pattern will improve the strength of your hamstrings during this action. These exercises are covered in Chapter 6, but include the squat, Romanian deadlift, glute bridge and hip thrust. Performing the single leg exercises will also improve the strength and control of your hamstrings, so are equally as important.

Having a strong posterior chain set of muscles is certainly likely to improve the force you can generate during push off and therefore lengthen your stride, but recall from Chapter 3 that the ability to produce force rapidly is also a key (and separate) quality you need to enhance. The exercises that improve general strength through hip extension are not ideal for developing explosive strength, as it is tricky to move fast without decelerating your body and the weight. Therefore, the exercises contained in the ‘explosive strength’ section of Chapter 6 (hang cleans, box jumps and medicine ball throws in particular) are much more appropriate. Each of these exercises produces force through a wide range of movement and involve little deceleration, so they can be tackled aggressively and with some intent to be explosive!

KEY INFORMATION

To develop the hamstrings’ ability to generate more force when you push-off, use the general strength and explosive strength training exercises described in Chapter 6.

SPECIFIC STRENGTHENING FOR INJURY PREVENTION AND RECTIFYING IMBALANCE

The overriding aim of this chapter is to introduce you to some more specific conditioning exercises for the hamstrings to minimize injury, and iron out any imbalance that might exist between your quadriceps and hamstrings. Based upon the function of your hamstrings during the running stride, it is important to condition them with exercises that possess some of these work-related characteristics. Firstly, exercises used to condition your hamstrings should emphasize resisting eccentric loads or the lowering phase of an exercise. Secondly, the hamstrings tend to be weak and vulnerable to injury when tension is developed in a lengthened position. Therefore exercises should be performed with the hamstrings loaded in an outer range position. Thirdly, capacity building exercises seem especially important for hamstrings, as they become susceptible to injury in distance runners when they are fatigued and are forced to contribute more to stability and push off.

KEY INFORMATION

A hamstring conditioning strategy should reflect the way the muscle is overloaded during running. Exercises should focus on resisting high loads for relatively long durations with the muscle held in a lengthened position.

Table 10a: Conditioning exercises to improve hamstring function and resilience to stress during running.

A suggested set of hamstring conditioning exercises that you can integrate into your training is shown in Table 10a. If you achieved an excellent score during the hamstring bridge benchmarking assessment, you can probably skip the capacity building exercises in this chapter and prioritize the strength and rate of activation exercises. If you achieved a poor or satisfactory score on the hamstring bridging assessment, you should focus on first developing capacity in your hamstrings before progressing on to the exercises in other categories.

Prior to performing any of the exercises for your hamstrings, it is imperative you perform an appropriate warm-up. Chapter 14 contains details on how to devise an effective warm-up, but if you intend on performing a high volume of these hamstring exercises, it would be wise to include several sets of the exercises that focus on dynamically mobilizing the hip and stretching the hamstrings (for example, leg swings).

Hamstring Bridge Holds

Aim:

* | Develop low load capacity of the hamstrings in a lengthened position

Technique:

Refer to the ‘Capacity Tests’ section of Chapter 4 for instructions.

* | Perform holds in the top position rather than repetitions

Prescription:

* | 3 x 60sec hold total, with switches every 5sec (6 x 5sec each side)

Progressions:

* | Increase the duration of holds before switching sides (aim for a 30sec hold each side)
* | Hold a dumbbell or plate across your hips

Swiss Ball Bridge and Curl

Aim:

* | Develop low load hamstring capacity with simultaneous hip extension and knee flexion

Technique:

Fig. 10.1: Swiss ball bridge and curl start position.

Fig. 10.2: Swiss ball bridge and curl top position.

* | Lie on a soft surface with your feet resting on the top of a Swiss ball and your arms by your side for stability
* | Perform a straight-leg bridge by pushing through the ball so there is a straight line from your ankles to your shoulders (see Fig. 10.1)
* | Simultaneously push through your heels and pull the ball towards you by flexing the knees (see Fig. 10.2)
* | Roll the ball away and lower the hips slowly until your legs are straight again

Prescription:

* | 3 x 12–15 repetitions (1min recovery, or as part of a conditioning circuit)

Progression:

* | Perform with one leg only

Single-Leg Back Extension

Aims:

* | Develop capacity and isometric strength in hamstrings in a lengthened position
* | Improve back extensor endurance

Technique:

Fig. 10.3: Single-leg back-extension hold position.

For this exercise you ideally need a glute-ham raise. If you do not have access to this, place a couple of weighted plates under a thin mat (as shown in Fig. 10.3).

* | Adjust a glute-ham raise, or shuffle along the mat so when face down your hips are aligned to the edge
* | Place a box in front of the glute-ham raise to rest on, or simply rest on your arms on the floor
* | Anchor yourself with just one foot in the glute-ham raise, or get a partner to apply pressure to your lower leg
* | With a slight bend at the knee, squeeze up just a few inches so your upper body becomes unsupported and your shoulders align to your hips (see Fig. 10.3)
* | Hold this position before allowing your arms to support your weight on the box/floor again

Prescription:

* | 3 x 30sec holds each side (1min recovery or as part of a conditioning circuit) initially with bodyweight alone

Progression:

* | Hold a 5–10kg plate across the chest
* | Heavy single-leg back extension: Use as a rate of activation exercise by gripping a heavy plate and developing tension rapidly before holding for 3sec. Release tension and repeat six times each side.
* | Beyond about 20kg, you will need to replace the plate with a barbell held at arm’s length. The floor version of the exercise can then not be used unless the set-up is placed on a high bench.

Arabesque

Aims:

* | Develop low-load capacity and control of the hamstrings and gluteal stabilizing muscles
* | Learn the skill of unilateral hip hingeing effectively

Technique:

Fig. 10.4: Arabesque start position.

Fig. 10.5: Arabesque bottom position.

* | Stand with the feet together and soften the knees slightly
* | Hold a dumbbell or kettlebell at arm’s length
* | Raise one leg slightly off the ground (see Fig. 10.4)
* | Prior to initiating movement, breathe in, tighten the trunk and lift the chest
* | Flex at the hip on one leg by pushing the hips backwards with the back remaining neutral
* | Allow one leg to kick up and swing back behind you to counteract the movement of your trunk
* | Flex over until the dumbbell/kettlebell reaches just below the level of your kneecap (see Fig. 10.5)
* | There should be a straight line from the ankle of your swing leg to your shoulder
* | Return to standing by pushing the hips forwards

Prescription:

* | 3 x 12–15 repetitions (1min recovery or as part of a conditioning circuit)

Progression:

Holding the weight on the stance leg side will mainly recruit the semimembranosus and semitendinosus muscles. Holding the weight on the free leg side will increase recruitment of gluteal stabilizers and biceps femoris.

Nordic Curls

Aim:

* | Develop resistance to eccentric loading in a lengthened position

Technique:

Fig. 10.6: Nordic curl start position.

Fig. 10.7: Nordic curl bottom position.

* | For this exercise you will need a partner, a glute-ham raise or a set of wall bars that you can anchor your feet behind
* | Kneel down with your lower leg anchored by a partner or an immovable object (see Fig. 10.6)
* | Pull your posture tall and tighten your trunk muscles
* | Leading with your hips so that your shoulders-hips-knees are aligned, allow your body to drop forwards slowly (see Fig. 10.7)
* | You will feel tension building in your hamstrings
* | When you reach a point where your hamstrings can no longer hold your bodyweight, pull back up to the start position
* | Aim to allow your hips to travel further each time you perform the exercise

Prescription:

* | 3 x 8 repetitions (2–3min recovery)

Progression:

If you have access to a glute-hamstring raise, perform a full range movement (Nordic with back extension) to a full recruit hamstrings using hip extension and knee flexion. Ensure the hips lead the movement and that the back remains straight.

Kettlebell Swings

Aim:

* | Develop high velocity eccentric strength in the hamstrings and back extensor muscles

Technique:

Fig. 10.8: Kettlebell swing bottom position.

Fig. 10.9: Kettlebell swing top position.

* | Stand with the feet slightly wider than shoulder width apart holding a kettlebell in both hands
* | Perform a Romanian deadlift movement by softening at the knees and pushing the hips back whilst keeping the back neutral (see Fig. 10.8)
* | As the kettlebell reaches knee height, thrust the hips forwards so the kettlebell swings to around chest level (see Fig. 10.9)
* | As the kettlebell falls, quickly focus on controlling the movement by bending from the hips rather than dropping into a squat using the knees
* | You should feel your hamstrings stretching rapidly as your hips push back

Prescription:

* | 3 x 6 repetitions (2–3min recovery)

Progressions:

* | Use a heavier kettlebell
* | Thrust the hips forwards more aggressively so the kettlebell travels higher (overhead) and therefore falls from a greater height
* | Perform with the kettlebell in one hand (switching hands each rep): this will challenge stability around the shoulders and trunk to a greater degree, and also place stress on the bicep femoris on the opposite side

Swiss Ball Kickers

Aim:

* | Develop the rate of activation and eccentric strength in the hamstrings in a lengthened position

Technique:

This exercise requires a partner.

Fig. 10.10: Swiss ball kickers.

* | Position yourself face down on a mat or soft surface
* | Rest on your lower legs and forearms with the elbows positioned directly under the shoulders
* | It is important for this exercise that the lower back is in a neutral position and the trunk is kept tight
* | Place a Swiss ball on the back of your thighs and get your partner to stand behind it so it doesn’t move (see Fig. 10.10)
* | On the word ‘go’, start to kick the Swiss ball hard alternately with your heels by rapidly bending your knees
* | As you feel your heel make contact with the ball it will naturally bounce back. Resist this response by trying to maintain a high frequency of kicks for 10sec

Prescription:

* | 3 x 10sec (2–3min recovery)

Progression:

* | Kick the Swiss ball with more aggression and intent whilst maintaining a fast rate

CHAPTER 11: GLUTEAL STABILITY

The gluteals as a muscle group have been mentioned countless times already in this book. This has mainly been in the context of enhancing force production and ensuring alignment between ankle, knee and hip when the foot is on the ground. But where are ‘the glutes’ and what function do they play? The glutes are essentially the muscles in and around our buttocks. They are made up of several muscles, which tend to get grouped together and collectively labelled ‘the glutes’, although in reality each plays a slightly different but important role.

The main glute muscle is the gluteus maximus, which has short-bunched fibres capable of producing high forces during hip extension. Working with the other smaller muscles, the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus, the gluteus maximus is also responsible for externally rotating the hip. Importantly, the gluteus medius and minimus work together to abduct the leg (move it sideways from the body), so these muscles play key roles in preventing the hip collapsing. The gluteus maximus also provides support for the knee when the leg is relatively straight. This is because tightening of the glutes makes the illiotibial tendon become taut, which inserts just below the knee.

There are many other deep muscles around the hip joint that are also usually thrown into ‘the glutes’ bracket of muscles: piriformis, obturators, gemellus and the tensor fascia latae. In comparison to the other gluteus muscles these are deeper and weaker, but they still play a role in creating and preventing rotations at the hip joint. Working in synchronicity, these muscles are primarily responsible for positioning the thigh correctly as it travels back and down towards the ground, and then subsequently throughout ground contact.

Based upon this, the glutes tend to get the blame for a great many running-related injuries, and you may have been told that ‘your glutes aren’t firing’, or ‘you need to activate your glutes’. However, it is important to remember that if you don’t suffer from any medical condition that prevents your nervous system from contracting your glutes, it simply cannot be the case that you aren’t using them. You would not be able to run (or even stand up, for that matter) without recruiting your glutes to some extent! There may, however, be truth in the observation that you are not using your glutes enough or in the right way.

Due to the long periods of time that people spend sitting and are inactive, glutes tend to waste away. This means that most people begin to rely on other muscles, such as their quadriceps and hamstrings, to perform movements requiring force; these muscles are weaker as compared to the glutes, and if you rely on weaker muscles to produce force at push-off and when stabilizing as your foot hits the ground, this will lead to sub-optimal performance and will increase the likelihood of injury. Improving the strength of your glutes and the timing of their activation during the running stride is therefore likely to improve your performance and lower the risk of injury.

KEY INFORMATION

‘The glutes’ is a collective term for the muscles that make up your buttocks. These muscles are incredibly important for running. They are capable of generating high forces compared to other muscles, and control the position of your knee when your foot is on the ground. Improving their function is therefore likely to enhance performance and lower injury risk.

The function of the glutes in the running stride was addressed in Chapter 3, where it was highlighted that they play the following important roles:

The Glutes Prevent Knee Valgus during the Stance Phase

When you stand on one leg, the muscles around your hip start to work hard to keep you upright and prevent your leg collapsing. The gluteus medius and minimus in particular perform an isometric contraction to prevent the thigh bone (the femur) from collapsing inwards (adducting). The gluteus maximus also contracts with some of the deeper muscles to prevent the femur rotating. When you run, you land on one leg from a height, which means these muscles around your hips are called upon to an even greater extent to eccentrically control forces. If the glutes aren’t sufficiently strong and well conditioned to cope with repeated landings, the femur will get pulled across and rotate inwards, which loads the knee in a vulnerable position. This collapse at the knee on landing is associated with weak or slow-activating glutes and is known as ‘knee valgus’. This is a leading cause of patellofemoral (knee) pain in many endurance runners.

Female Endurance Runners Beware!

Unfortunately for female distance runners, the risk of knee valgus and patellofemoral injury is significantly higher as compared to male runners. Due to their disproportionately wider hips, women have a higher Q-angle than men, which means the angle of the femur relative to the pelvis is greater. This means that naturally the femur will be pushed inwards when a force is applied from above or below. The importance of glute strengthening for female endurance runners cannot be overstated!

It would be great to say that all knee valgus positions are caused by weak glutes, but this would be misleading. Although a lack of glute strength and control is a leading cause of a poor landing position, sometimes strengthening the glutes won’t fix the problem. Other dysfunctions that may contribute towards a knee valgus position include a lack of ankle mobility, an imbalance between quadriceps and hamstring strength, weak inner quadriceps, tightness in the adductor (groin) muscles, and poor timing/activation of the hip and knee muscles. A balanced and well organized S&C programme, which includes a range of strength-training exercises, will go a long way to solving many of these issues.

KEY INFORMATION

Resistance training exercises and plyometrics are the best training activities for improving strength and control in your glutes. If you have suffered knee injuries in the past or observe that your knees collapse inwards when you run or perform single leg exercises, you would certainly benefit from gluteal stability exercises.

When performing any strength-training exercise, particularly those on one leg, the key technical marker of glute function is alignment between ankle, knee and hip (see Chapter 3, Fig. 3.8). If the hip has shifted outwards relative to the torso and leg, or the knee is angled inwards (see Figs 3.9 and 3.10) during any exercise or drill, you would benefit from a focused glute stability routine as part of your S&C programme. Similarly, when performing running drills (see Chapter 12), check that the opposite hip to the leg in contact with the ground is in a higher position than the stance side hip: if it is level or lower, this is a marker that the glutes on your standing leg are too weak.

Position your Foot to allow the Achilles Tendon to function

Improving your running technique and enhancing the elasticity of your Achilles tendon should be key areas of focus for your S&C. However, placing all the emphasis on foot strike and jumping exercises neglects the point where a stride is initiated: the hips. Ultimately, your running technique, and the position your foot strikes the ground, is a function of how effectively you have used muscles further up your legs first. Therefore to really improve the way you run, you need to start by addressing how well your gluteal muscles are functioning so your feet are placed in the best position to allow your Achilles tendon to function in the optimal way.

The Glutes produce High Forces during Hip Extension

Assuming that your foot strikes the ground under your centre of mass, this means that you will utilize your Achilles tendon effectively to store and return energy. The more contribution you can gain from this mechanism, the less muscular work you will need to produce, and the faster you will run for the same energy expenditure. As well as the contribution from your Achilles tendon, your knees and hips also extend when pushing off to propel your body forwards. The muscles of the hips (gluteals) have by far the biggest potential for producing force, so utilizing strength-training exercises with a hip-dominant movement pattern will improve your force-producing capability at push-off.

Improving your Glute Function

The best exercises to create greater ‘activation’ in your gluteal muscles are the resistance-training exercises covered in Chapter 6. Equally, the most effective strategy for improving the timing and control of glute activation on landing are plyometric exercises (see Chapter 7) and simple running drills (see Chapter 12). However, if you repeatedly struggle with retaining ankle–knee–hip alignment during unilateral strength-training exercises and plyometrics, you would certainly benefit from incorporating some specific conditioning exercises for the smaller stabilizing muscles of the hip. This is often the case for many female and young athletes who have very underactive gluteal muscles, and need to learn how to co-ordinate and time their recruitment more effectively. Likewise, if you are a runner who has suffered from knee pain in the past, it certainly wouldn’t hurt to include a glute stability and activation routine, as this may well be an underlying cause of your injury.

Table 11a: Exercises to improve gluteal function and control.

Table 11a lists a range of suitable conditioning exercises that should be used to initially improve glute function and control. Learning resistance-training exercises should still take place alongside this glute-conditioning routine. The five rows in the ‘capacity’ category of exercises include pairs of exercises that challenge muscles of the hip region in different ways. Instead of randomly selecting exercises that activate the glutes, to achieve full glute recruitment and control, exercises should be picked that strengthen the movements the glutes are responsible for producing: the internal and external rotation of the femur, abduction, and hip extension from an open and a closed position. During the running stride, all these joint actions need to be produced or prevented, so neglecting one or more movements will leave you more vulnerable to injury.

If your initial assessments demonstrated that you could maintain ankle–knee–hip alignment during the fundamental movement screen, it is unnecessary to perform capacity exercises for your glutes. Likewise, if you are experienced in resistance training and have not suffered any knee injuries in the past, it is unlikely that you will gain much from isolated glute stability work. Include one or two of the capacity exercises as part of your warm-up routine, and incorporate some within an injury prevention conditioning circuit alongside exercises that target other areas. If you fall into either of these categories, your focus should be on bilateral and unilateral strength exercises during your main S&C sessions (see Chapter 6).

There are dozens of different floor-based glute stability exercises and variations. Wherever possible, glute capacity work should be performed in a standing position, as this is more relevant to the position in which the glutes need to tolerate fatigue. When standing, the glutes of the standing leg also tend to work harder to maintain stability. Strength, rate of activation and specific drills for the glutes are all addressed in other chapters of this book. Developing strength around the hips is so important to runners that the majority of S&C exercises should place a focus on maximizing their use in almost every scenario.

KEY INFORMATION

Keep your glute capacity exercises varied and perform in a standing position whenever possible. Perform capacity exercises in high volumes (12-15 reps per set) one after the other in a circuit.

EXERCISES TO IMPROVE GLUTEAL FUNCTION AND CONTROL

Side-Lying Raise

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity and control of the gluteal muscle group (through a hip abduction pattern)

Technique:

Fig. 11.1: Side-lying raise start position.

Fig. 11.2: Side-lying raise top position.

* | Lie on your side with your legs straight and hips/shoulders square to the floor (see Fig. 11.1)
* | Raise your top leg upwards and slightly backwards (see Fig. 11.2)
* | If you look down the line of your body you should see your foot disappearing slightly behind you at you raise your leg
* | Squeeze your abdominals to keep your lower back in a neutral position
* | Perform both the up and down phases of the movement slowly and under control

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 reps, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Progressions:

* | Tie a theraband or mini resistance band around your knees; shifting it further down your leg towards your ankles will increase the challenge further
* | Standing cable kick-out

Crab Walk

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity and control of the gluteal muscle group (through a standing hip abduction pattern)

Technique:

Fig. 11.3: Crab walk start position.

Fig. 11.4: Crab walk end position.

* | Tie a theraband or mini resistance band around your knees. If you do not have any equipment, you will still benefit from performing the exercise without a band
* | Stand with your feet slightly wider than hip width apart
* | Squat down slightly and allow your weight to shift towards the ball of your foot (see Fig. 11.3)
* | Take small steps laterally to your right (or left), keeping your feet wider than hip width apart (see Fig. 11.4)
* | Keep your trunk muscles tight throughout the set to maintain good posture
* | After twelve to fifteen steps, reverse the direction so you lead with the opposite leg

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 steps, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Progressions:

* | Shift the band further down your leg towards your ankles
* | Perform the exercise in a lower squat position

Clam Shells

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity and control of the gluteal muscle group (through an external rotation and abduction pattern)

Technique:

Fig. 11.5: Clam shell start position.

Fig. 11.6: Clam shell top position.

* | Lie on your side with your hips/shoulders square to the floor
* | Flex both legs slightly at the hips and bend your knees to a right-angle (see Fig. 11.5)
* | Keep your hips/shoulders square to the ground and your ankles together, then rotate your top leg upwards (see Fig. 11.6)
* | When your hips can no longer stay square to the ground, return to the start position
* | Perform both the up and down phases of the movement slowly and under control

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 reps, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Progressions:

* | Tie a theraband or mini resistance band around your knees
* | Perform in a four-point kneeling position

Wall Push

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity and control of the gluteal muscle group (through an external rotation pattern and resisting internal rotation)

Technique:

Fig. 11.7: Wall push position.

* | Stand side-on to a wall with the feet hip width apart
* | Flex at the hip on the inside leg and soften the outside leg slightly
* | Push against the wall with the inside leg, and squeeze the glutes hard on the outside leg to prevent the hip moving
* | Push the outside knee outwards slightly to further assist in stabilizing the hip (see Fig. 11.7)
* | Tighten your trunk muscles to maintain a neutral back position
* | Avoid leaning away from, or against the wall

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 30sec static hold each side, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Progression:

* | Apply greater pressure to the wall with the inside knee

Reverse Clams

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity and control of the gluteal muscle group (through an internal rotation and abduction pattern)

Technique:

Fig. 11.8: Reverse clams start position.

Fig. 11.9: Reverse clams top position.

* | Lie on your side with your hips/shoulders square to the floor
* | Flex both legs slightly at the hips, and bend your knees to a right-angle
* | Keep your hips/shoulders square to the ground and your ankles together, and rotate your top leg upwards (see Fig. 11.8)
* | With your top knee and hips fixed, kick your heel upwards (see Fig. 11.9) before tapping back against the other heel on the ground
* | Perform both the up and the down phases of the movement slowly and under control

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 reps, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Progression:

* | Reverse wall touch

Reverse Wall Touch

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity and control of the gluteal muscle group (through an internal rotation, abduction and extension pattern)

Technique:

Fig. 11.10: Reverse wall touch start position.

Fig. 11.11: Reverse wall touch rear position.

* | Stand with your back to a wall; take one stride forwards
* | Stand on one leg and soften the knee on the stance leg
* | Flex at the hip so your thigh is parallel to the ground (see Fig. 11.10)
* | Push your heel outwards and backwards until it touches the wall (see Fig. 11.11)
* | Reverse the movement, but do not allow your foot to touch the ground
* | Keep your trunk muscles tight, and squeeze your glute on the standing leg throughout the movement to maintain balance and posture
* | Perform both the up and down phases of the movement slowly and under control

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 reps, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Progression:

* | Use the hurdle as a target to clear instead of the wall

Reverse Kicks

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity and control of the gluteal muscle group (through an open extension pattern)

Technique:

Fig. 11.12: Reverse kicks start position.

Fig. 11.13: Reverse kicks top position.

* | Kneel over a bench or chair so the hips are tight to the edge and the knees are directly under the hips
* | Grip the bench and ensure the back is in a neutral position (see Fig. 11.12)
* | Kick one heel upwards towards the ceiling until the thigh is parallel to the ground (see Fig. 11.13)
* | Lower your leg back to the start position until your knee is just above the ground
* | Keep the trunk muscles tight throughout the movement to ensure your back remains neutral (do not hyper-extend the lower back in the top position)
* | Perform both the up and the down phases of the movement slowly and under control

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 reps, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Progressions:

* | Tie a theraband or resistance band around your feet. Ensure you keep your toes pulled tight to your shins to anchor the band
* | Reverse extensions

Reverse Extensions

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity and control of the gluteal muscle group (through an open extension pattern)

Technique:

Fig. 11.14: Reverse extension start position.

Fig. 11.15: Reverse extension top position.

* | Lie face down over a high bench, table or Swiss ball
* | Grip the edge of the table/bench and tighten the trunk muscles to stabilize the torso (see Fig. 11.14)
* | Lift both legs simultaneously upwards until there is a straight line between the ankles, hips and shoulders (see Fig. 11.15)
* | Ensure you do not hyper-extend your lower back in the top position
* | Lower your legs back to the start position until the feet are just above the ground
* | Perform both the up and the down phases of the movement slowly and under control

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 reps, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Progression:

* | Attach a resistance band around your ankles, then tether it to the bench/table

Glute Bridge Fallout

Aim:

* | Develop the capacity and control of the gluteal muscle group (through a closed extension, abduction and external rotation pattern)

Technique:

Fig. 11.16: Glute bridge fallout start position.

Fig. 11.17: Glute bridge fallout bottom position.

* | Lie on your back with your arms across your chest
* | Position your feet hip width apart with your knees at a right-angle
* | Rise into a glute bridge position, so there is a straight line from your knees to your shoulders (see Fig. 11.16)
* | Holding this bridge position, allow one knee to drop outwards (see Fig. 11.17) and then return back to centre
* | Keep the trunk and glute muscles tight throughout the set to ensure the back remains neutral and the knee–hip– shoulder aligned
* | Perform both the inward and outward phases of the movement slowly and under control

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 12–15 reps, or perform as part of a conditioning circuit

Progression:

* | Tie a theraband or resistance band around your knees (as shown in Figs 11.16 and 11.17)
* | For the technique of glute bridge, see Chapter 6.

CHAPTER 12: TECHNICAL RUNNING DRILLS

The philosophy that has underpinned the exercise chapters so far in this book is based around identifying and developing the physical capacities that are important to improving running performance and reducing the risk of injury. This approach gives secondary consideration to the types of movement that are used to overload different physiological systems and specific tissues. This is mainly because attempting to simply replicate or manipulate the running stride in a gym-based setting provides an insufficient stimulus to improve important physical qualities. Attempting to improve strength and integrity of tissues by solely overloading different parts of the running stride is a questionable strategy that is likely to result in early plateaus in improvement and may even impact negatively on running form.

You should consider strength training, plyometrics and conditioning exercises as the foundation of your S&C programme. They may not lead to immediate or obvious improvements in performance, but they are necessary to develop a base of strength, movement competence and robustness, on which more specific running exercises can be added. This isn’t to say that running drills cannot be performed until these qualities have been improved: in fact, many of you probably already perform running drills as part of your warm-up routine. Including some basic technical running drills as part of your movement preparation for sessions is certainly to be encouraged. However, it is less necessary to dedicate whole or extended sessions to running drills throughout the year in favour of strength training and conditioning activities.

Strength training should therefore be used to ‘prime’ the nervous system and gain greater control over the use of your limbs. Running drills can be used alongside this to teach the nervous system how to co-ordinate the body more effectively and express higher levels of force through movements that closely mimic the running stride. Improving technique and control with running drills is likely to reduce the energy cost of running, reduce stress on areas susceptible to injury, and correct compensatory patterns of movements.

KEY INFORMATION

Drills that mimic parts of the running stride have fairly obvious benefits in terms of improving your technique. Running drills will improve your coordination and skill so will make you a more efficient runner who is less vulnerable to injury.

The aim of this chapter is to describe a range of running drills that provide a specific technical focus that runners can utilize during their warm-up routines in particular. These have overlap with many of the ‘specific drills’ that have been highlighted as being suitable for strengthening joints and tissues vulnerable to injury in the conditioning chapters. Finally, to facilitate transfers of strength from your general gym-based routine, more specific strength work should be performed. This will partly be achieved with plyometric training exercises (Chapter 7), but other high intensity running-based activities are also helpful.

CATEGORIES OF RUNNING DRILLS

Category | Purpose | Drills

Ground contact

Low-level plyometric activities that develop stiffness at the ankle and knee, and therefore shorten contact times. Will also provide a strong conditioning stimulus for the foot and ankle

• Pogos*
• Sotos
• Foot tack
• Ankling
• Double/triple mini hops

Early leg recovery
(A-drills)

Improve action of the trail leg and foot as it leaves the ground to recover into a front side position. These drills also strengthen the hip flexors to some extent

• Leg cycles
• A-walk
• A-skip
• High knee switch
• Deadleg run
• High knees

Late leg recovery
(B-drills)

Encourage foot placement under the hips so minimizing heel strike and braking forces. Also places high degree of stress on the hamstring muscles so can be used as a useful conditioning tool

• Marching
• B-walk
• Straight leg skip
• B-skip
• Straight leg running

Hurdle walkovers

Enhance dynamic hip mobility, gluteal control and posture of the trunk. These drills can be manipulated to provide a greater stimulus for hip mobility, the gluteal stabilizers or the trunk musculature. Skipping versions of each drill develop rhythm and plyometric qualities

• Forward walkover
• Backward walkover
• Lateral stepover
• Scissor walkover
• Straight leg kick
• One foot stepover

High intensity activities | Aid in the transfer of strength gains from weight-training activities to the running stride. A form of explosive strength training, and can be classified as moderate-high intensity plyometric exercises | • Hopping and bounding* • (Broomstick) strides/sprints • Steep hill sprints

* Refer to Chapter 7 on Plyometric Training

Table 12a: Running drills for developing specific aspects of technique, mobility and tissue integrity.

The running stride is a complex skill that involves a highly co-ordinated sequence of joint and muscle actions, but like any other S&C activity, running drills can be classified according to their main purpose. Table 12a provides the main classifications of running drill and their primary function. The drills you pick should ideally be based upon the aspect of your running technique that needs work, or the specific muscle/joint you wish to stress, rather than selecting drills at random. If you are unsure where your style is breaking down, try to seek some advice from a technical running coach who understands the fundamentals of running technique. Having said this, you can’t go far wrong if you perform a basic set of walking and skipping drills as part of your warm-up that focuses on the technical instructions provided in this chapter. The correct technique to execute when performing each of the drills listed reflects the biomechanical model of running that was described in Chapter 3.

KEY INFORMATION

Running drills can be grouped based upon the phase of the running stride they mainly work on, and the area of the body they overload. A warm-up is a good time to incorporate a selection of drills that work on basic walking, marching and skipping movements.

Given the volume of running you complete compared to the relatively short time spent performing running drills, it is perhaps difficult to understand how improvements in technique on a running drill will transfer across to your habitual running style. Achieving transfer can be difficult, which is why regular exposure to drills is important. It is also important to incorporate bridging-type drills that will help the transition to a normal running stride. In addition, use your easy runs to focus attention on the aspects of technique that you wish to change, and perhaps include a few specific drills before you begin your runs. Although improving your running technique is likely to be your primary goal, also remember that running drills provide less tangible benefits. In the absence of any obvious visual changes to your running style after a period of performing drills, bear in mind that the overload provided to your nervous system and tissues will still improve performance and reduce the risk of injury.

GROUND CONTACT DRILLS

This category of drills is essentially a collection of low-level plyometrics exercises. Whereas with plyometric training the goal is to progressively provide higher levels of eccentric muscle stress to enhance the function of stretch-shortening cycle mechanisms, the purpose here is to retain features of running technique and simply focus on being fast off the ground. If you are inexperienced with plyometric training exercises this collection of drills is highly suitable to introduce you to this type of training. Over time you should then follow the progressions outlined in Chapter 7 on ‘Plyometric Training’, however these drills can still be useful for a warm-up. The series of drills listed in Table 12a and described below, move from double leg jumping to exercises that progressively challenge you more on one leg.

You may find some of the drills in this category quite tricky to master, despite their similarity to the running stride. If this is the case, you should certainly persevere. This is an excellent example of how running drills can enhance the control and co-ordination you have over your limbs, which will ultimately make you a more efficient and adaptable runner. Being able to execute a wide range of skills that all have a common technical emphasis, demonstrates that you have excellent body awareness, and this will enable you to appropriately alter your technique in different scenarios and environments. Ultimately this equates to a reduced risk of injury and the ability to control body positions more effectively.

The main focus throughout the progressions should be on very short ground-contact times. Pretend you are jumping or hopping across red-hot coals! To enable you to be very stiff at ground contact, ensure you pull your toes tight to your shin when you are in the air, and that you remain on the balls of your feet when you land. With the primary focus of these drills being spending a short time on the ground, there is a high degree of stress placed upon the foot and ankle. This makes these exercises ideal for conditioning the tissues and structures around this area, although care should be taken not to perform high volumes of this type of work (see Chapter 9 on ‘Foot and Ankle Conditioning’).

KEY INFORMATION

Ground contact drills are essentially different types of low level jumping exercise. They will improve your ground contact time and develop the strength of your Achilles tendon and calves.

Sotos

Aims:

* | Development of ankle and knee stiffness (bilateral with unilateral focus)
* | Improve co-ordination

Technique:

Figs 12.1(i) and (ii) : Sotos: contact the ground with two feet simultaneously (Fig. 12.1(i)) but allow one leg to flex up with each bounce (Fig. 12.1(ii)) so more weight is shifted to one side.

See Figs 12.1(i) and 12.1(ii).

* | Begin the drill by performing repeated low height pogo jumps, spending as little time on the ground as possible
* | A soto involves flexing one leg slightly as you bounce off the ground so you still land on the ground on two feet but the majority of the stress has shifted to one side
* | As you leave the ground pull the toes tight to your shins so as you land they actively plant into the surface
* | Aim to bounce along using your ankles with minimal bend at the knees on each landing
* | Progress forwards by about a foot length each repetition

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 20 repetitions or 8–10m each leg (walk back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Shorten the contact time and increase the height
* | Challenge co-ordination by driving with alternate legs each bounce

Foot Tack

Aims:

* | Development of ankle and knee stiffness (alternate bilateral-unilateral landing)
* | Enhance the capacity of the ankle flexor muscles
* | Improve co-ordination

Technique:

Figs 12.2(i) and (ii): Foot tack – perform alternate hop on one leg (Fig. 12.2(i)) followed by a two-footed jump (Fig. 12.2(ii)).

See Figs 12.2(i) and 12.2(ii).

* | Begin the drill by performing hops on one leg
* | On alternate contacts strike the ground with two feet and then one foot: in other words, one pogo jump – one hop
* | Aim to bounce along using your ankles with minimal bend at the knees on each landing
* | Progress forwards by about a foot length on each repetition

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 20 repetitions, or 8–10m each leg (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Shorten the contact time and increase the height
* | Challenge co-ordination by alternating legs each hop
* | Challenge glute stability on the stance leg side by driving the knee outwards instead of upwards

Ankling

Aims:

* | Development of ankle stiffness (alternate unilateral landing)
* | Enhance the capacity of the ankle flexor muscles

Technique:

Figs 12.3(i) and (ii): Ankling – run slowly, bouncing alternately from right to left using only your ankles to push off the ground.

See Figs 12.3(i) and 12.3(ii).

* | Bounce forwards on the balls of your feet switching between the left and the right foot
* | Keep the knees straight and use only your ankles to propel you forwards
* | Pull the toe tight to the shin and actively plant your foot into the ground as it makes contact
* | Progress forwards by about a foot length at each repetition

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 40 steps or 10–12m (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Shorten the contact time and increase the height
* | Challenge posture by positioning your hands overhead

Double/Triple Mini Hops

Aims:

* | Development of ankle and knee stiffness (unilateral landing)
* | Enhance the capacity of the ankle flexor muscles

Technique:

Fig. 12.4: Mini hops – bounce on one leg two or three times using only your ankle to push off the ground before switching to the other leg.

See Fig. 12.4.

* | Perform two to three mini hops on one leg before switching to the next
* | Aim to bounce along using your ankles with minimal bend at the knees on each landing
* | Progress forwards by about a foot length at each repetition

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 30–40 hops total, or 10–12m (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Shorten the contact time and increase the height
* | Add hops (4+) before switching legs

EARLY LEG RECOVERY DRILLS (‘A-DRILLS’)

Many experienced running coaches swear by this set of drills, and for most runners these should form the backbone of any drills or warm-up routine. The main reason that there should be a large emphasis on these drills is that the effectiveness of muscles and tendons when the foot is on the ground is a result of how well the limbs are positioned prior to ground contact. If the foot strikes the ground in a poor position, or the muscles are not pre-activated prior to ground contact, a large amount of energy is wasted and movement is inefficient. Improving co-ordination and control of movement from the very start of a running stride, when the foot first leaves the ground, is therefore crucial to enhancing technique. The second reason that these drills should perhaps be given priority is that the physical attributes required to be effective during ground contact are best overloaded with other types of training activity, namely strength and plyometric training.

This set of drills is particularly important for any runners who tend to carry their hips very low when they run, or who struggle to hit a ‘high knee’ position as their leg recovers under their body. Equally, runners who strike the ground too far in front of their body will usually have positioned their thigh and foot poorly during the early part of recovery, so would also benefit from these drills. The aim across all these drills is to pull the knee forward fast so the heel recovers as close to your buttock as possible and the thigh finishes parallel to the ground.

Each drill involves a fairly aggressive punching-type action with the knee to pull it into a high front position. The hip flexor muscle group is therefore recruited to a large extent during these exercises. Strengthening this muscle group is very valuable for a runner, but if overworked regularly, they can also become tight and can then affect posture. Developing both strength and flexibility in these muscles is therefore important for any runner.

The series of drills listed in Table 12a for improving leg recovery into a high knee front side position progresses in complexity and speed of movement. Leg cycles and A-walks are virtually unloaded movements that provide little overload to muscles and joints, but aim to promote a correct recovery leg action and sound posture. You may find stepping over low hurdles provides an external cue that helps you achieve better positions here. A-skips add in a small plyometric element, but this shouldn’t detract from the main focus of hitting effective positions with the leg that is recovering. High knee switches add velocity to the movement, but the discrete nature of the drill means focus can still be placed on the technical aspects of the movement. ‘Deadleg runs’ are essentially a single leg, high knee drill.

Focus can be placed upon the action of just one leg at a time, but the opposite leg also plays a role in ensuring that a correct body position is achieved. All athletes should aim to work towards executing a continuous high knee drill with sound posture and a full range arm action.

KEY INFORMATION

Improving the ability of your leg to recover into a high knee position with good posture is a fundamental part of a sound running technique. ‘A-drills’ should therefore be given priority during your drills and warm-up routine.

Leg Cycles

Aims:

* | Improve heel and leg recovery pattern (unilateral focus)
* | Develop awareness of standing tall with good posture

Technique:

Figs 12.5(i) and (ii): Leg cycles – starting from a high knee position with good posture, cycle your leg rapidly so the foot strikes the ground under your hips and your heel steps over your knee.

See Figs 12.5(i) and 12.5(ii).

* | Stand side-on to, and an arm’s length away from a wall or railing, and hold for support
* | Flex at the hip so the thigh is parallel to the ground, and pull the toes tight to the shin
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles and your support leg glute
* | Perform a full-cycle motion with your outside leg, ensuring your foot brushes the ground directly under your hips
* | Ensure you step your heel up and over your kneecap each time so it travels close to your buttock

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 12 reps (continuous switches between sides)

Progression:

* | Increase the speed of movement

A-Walk

Aims:

* | Improve heel and leg recovery pattern (alternate)
* | Develop good posture

Technique:

Fig. 12.6: A-walk – walk forwards with an exaggerated knee lift and good posture, pretending you are stepping over long grass.

See Fig. 12.6.

* | Walk forwards pretending you are stepping through long grass
* | Extend at the ankle, knee and hip simultaneously on one leg so the hips are as high as possible
* | The thigh of the free leg should reach parallel to the ground and the toes should be pulled tight to the shin
* | Pull yourself tall: tighten your trunk muscles and your support leg glute at each step
* | Step forwards slowly and under control, ensuring that your heel steps over your knee each time so it travels close to your buttock
* | Move your arms through a wide range but maintain relaxation around the shoulders

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 15–20m (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Place your hands overhead to challenge posture. As you extend at the ankle–knee–hip on your stance leg, the hand on the free leg side should reach a few inches higher
* | Step over hurdles with one leg to challenge mobility

A-Skip

Aims:

* | Improve heel and leg recovery pattern during dynamic movement pattern
* | Development of ankle stiffness (alternate unilateral landing)
* | Develop good posture

Technique:

Fig. 12.7: A-skip – add a skip to the A-walk by bouncing between each step.

See Fig. 12.7.

* | Start skipping forwards (as a child would) but with an exaggerated knee lift and arm action
* | The thigh of the free leg should reach parallel to the ground and the toes should be pulled tight to the shin
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles
* | Ensure your heel recovers over your knee each time so it travels close to your buttock
* | Focus on bouncing across the ground with a short contact rather than shuffling

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 15–20m (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Increase the speed of your leg recovery
* | Place your hands overhead to challenge posture
* | Perform a double hop before switching each side to place more focus on ground contact and ankle stiffness

High Knee Switch

Aims:

* | Improve heel and leg recovery pattern (at a faster speed)
* | Develop good posture

Technique:

Fig. 12.8: A-switch – from the position in the image, perform a mini hop and switch legs rapidly to land on the other leg but in the same position.

See Fig. 12.8.

* | Adopt and hold an A-walk position with the thigh of the free leg parallel to the ground and the toes pulled tight to the shin
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles
* | Bounce off the support leg and switch legs quickly in the air, landing on the opposite leg
* | Ensure your heel recovers over your knee during the switch so it travels close to your buttock
* | Keep the hips as high as possible throughout the set, and avoid the trunk leaning backwards

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 15–20 reps (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Increase the speed of movement
* | Perform a double or triple switch continuously before a hold

Deadleg Run

Aims:

* | Improve heel and leg recovery pattern (continuous unilateral focus)
* | Develop good posture

Technique:

Figs 12.9(i) and (ii): Deadleg run – run forwards performing a continuous high knee cycling action with just one leg.

See Figs 12.9(i) and 12.9(ii).

* | Run forwards slowly performing a high knee leg cycling action with just one leg
* | The thigh of the working leg should reach parallel to the ground with the toes pulled tight to the shin
* | The deadleg should remain relatively straight and move through a short range
* | Ensure your heel recovers over your knee during each cycle so it travels close to your buttock
* | Keep the hips as high as possible throughout the set and ensure your posture remains tall

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 20–30m each leg (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Challenge co-ordination by switching sides every two to three strides
* | Involve the ‘deadleg’ more by keeping the leg straight and pulling back aggressively to make contact with ground

High Knees

Aims:

* | Improve heel and leg recovery pattern during continuous running
* | Develop good posture

Technique:

Figs 12.10(i) and 12.10(ii): High knees – run forwards with an exaggerated knee drive and arm action.

See Figs 12.10(i) and 12.10(ii).

* | Run forwards slowly performing a high knee, leg-cycling action
* | The thigh of the recovery leg should reach parallel to the ground with the toes pulled tight to the shin
* | Ensure your heel recovers over your knee during each cycle so it travels close to your buttock
* | Keep the hips as high as possible throughout the set
* | Ensure your posture remains tall and avoid the trunk leaning backwards
* | Move your arms through a wide range, but maintain relaxation around the shoulders

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 20–30m (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Increase the speed of the leg recovery
* | Take away the contribution from the arms by hugging your arms round your body
* | Perform a very gradual transition into a full running stride over a further 30–40m

LATE LEG RECOVERY DRILLS (‘B-DRILLS’)

A separate set of running drills develops the late recovery phase of the stride and the ability to position the foot under the hips as it strikes the ground. Once the thigh has recovered into a position where it is about parallel to the ground, the swing of the lower leg needs to be decelerated. This is achieved by the hamstrings, which work under high tension to resist the momentum of the lower leg as it swings through (see Chapter 10 for a full explanation). Training this quality and conditioning the hamstrings to tolerate high eccentric stress is best achieved with fast sprints, but some of the drills listed under this category will also be helpful.

The main feature of the running stride that these drills are attempting to overload is the contribution from the gluteals and hamstrings to pull the leg and foot under the hips at ground contact. This is often referred to as the ‘whip from the hip’. In addition, these drills provide an opportunity to work on hitting an effective ankle position, with the foot cocked tight to the shin just prior to ground contact.

Many coaches might argue that this set of drills is unnecessary for distance runners, because the velocity of the swinging lower leg is quite slow compared to when sprinting. In addition, the foot falls from its highest position under the influence of gravity at slow running speed, rather than being pulled back actively by muscular work. But regardless of their direct carryover to the running action, these drills provide the gluteals and hamstrings with an effective conditioning stimulus that will enhance their function and your control over their movement.

As with other categories of drills, to develop skill and get a feeling for the correct movement pattern, start with basic marching and walking patterns. These can then be progressed into skipping patterns where an element of velocity and stiffness are required, which is more akin to running. Straight-leg running is a particularly useful drill to develop explosive strength around the hip, as speed is generated almost solely from the muscles that extend the hip.

KEY INFORMATION

‘B-drills’ work on your ability to position your foot beneath your hips as it strikes the ground so are particularly useful for runners who over stride. These drills work your hamstrings and gluteals particularly hard so they become better at controlling your leg as it swings through and contribute more towards developing force at ground contact.

Marching

Aim:

* | Improve the position of the foot at ground contact
* | Develop gluteal and hamstring recruitment in late recovery and at ground contact

Technique:

Figs 12.11(i) and 12.11(ii): Marching – walk with the legs completely straight and the toes pulled tight to the shins. Pull your leg back rapidly with each step.

See Figs 12.11(i) and 12.11(ii).

* | Walk forwards pretending you are marching with the legs completely straight. All movement should come from the hips
* | Kick your leg up to about a 45-degree angle before pulling it back rapidly under your body
* | As you kick your leg up, ensure the toes are pulled tight to the shin
* | As you pull your leg back, make contact with the ground with the ball of your foot
* | Pull yourself tall: tighten your trunk muscles and your support leg glute on each step forwards
* | Move your arms naturally, but maintain relaxation around the shoulders

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 15–20m (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Place your hands overhead to challenge posture
* | Kick your leg higher to challenge hip mobility and posture

B-Walk

Aims:

* | Improve the position of the foot at ground contact
* | Develop gluteal and hamstring recruitment in late recovery and at ground contact
* | Improve hamstring capacity to tolerate eccentric loading (low intensity)
* | Develop good posture

Technique:

Figs 12.12(i), 12.12(ii) and 12.12(iii): B-walk – walk along by raising your knee high, kicking out and pulling your foot back under your body.

See Figs 12.12(i), (ii) and (iii).

* | Walk forwards with an exaggerated knee lift and kick out
* | Flex at the hip before extending at the knee and whipping the foot back directly under the body
* | As you kick your leg up and out, ensure the toes are pulled tight to the shin
* | As you pull your leg back, make contact with the ground with the ball of your foot
* | Pull yourself tall: tighten your trunk muscles and your support leg glute on each step forwards
* | Move your arms through an exaggerated range but maintain relaxation around the shoulders

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 15–20m (walk-back recovery)

Progression:

* | Whip your leg back under your body faster.

Straight-Leg Skip

Aims:

* | Improve position of the foot at ground contact during dynamic movement pattern
* | Develop gluteal and hamstring recruitment in late recovery and at ground contact
* | Improve development of ankle stiffness (alternate unilateral landing)

Technique:

Fig. 12.13: Straight-leg skip – add a skip to the march drill by bouncing between each step.

See Fig. 12.13.

* | Start skipping forwards (as a child would) but maintain completely straight legs
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles to avoid your torso swinging
* | Kick your legs out to about a 45-degree angle before pulling back directly under your body
* | As you kick your leg up ensure the toes are pulled tight to the shin
* | As you pull your leg back, make contact with the ground with the ball of your foot
* | Move your arms naturally but maintain relaxation around the shoulders
* | Focus on bouncing across the ground with a short contact rather than shuffling

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 15–20m (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Place your hands overhead to challenge posture
* | Kick your leg higher to challenge hip mobility and posture
* | Perform a double hop before switching each side to place more focus on ground contact and ankle stiffness

B-Skip

Aims:

* | Improve the position of your foot at ground contact
* | Develop gluteal and hamstring recruitment in late recovery and at ground contact
* | Improve hamstring capacity to tolerate eccentric loading (moderate intensity)
* | Improve development of ankle stiffness alternate unilateral landing)
* | Develop good posture

Technique:

* | Skip forwards with an exaggerated knee lift and kick out
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles to avoid your torso collapsing
* | Flex at the hip before extending at the knee and whipping the foot back directly under the body
* | As you kick your leg up and out, ensure the toes are pulled tight to the shin
* | As you pull your leg back, make contact with the ground with the ball of your foot
* | Move your arms through an exaggerated range but maintain relaxation around the shoulders
* | Focus on bouncing across the ground with a short contact rather than shuffling

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 15–20m (walk-back recovery)

Progression:

* | Whip your leg back under your body faster

Straight-Leg Running

Aims:

* | Improve the position of the foot at ground contact during continuous running
* | Develop gluteal and hamstring recruitment in late recovery and at ground contact

Technique:

Fig. 12.14: Straight-leg running – the same as the marching drill, but run forwards with the knees completely straight.

See Fig. 12.14.

* | Run forwards slowly but maintain completely straight legs
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles to avoid the trunk leaning backwards
* | Kick the legs out to about a 45-degree angle on each stride before pulling back directly under the body
* | As you kick your leg up, ensure the toes are pulled tight to the shin
* | As you pull your leg back, make contact with the ground with the ball of your foot
* | Move your arms naturally, but maintain relaxation around the shoulders

Prescription:

* | 2–3 x 20–30m (walk-back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Pull your leg back under your body faster
* | Perform a very gradual transition into a full running stride over a further 30–40m

HURDLE WALKOVERS

To develop dynamic mobility around the hips and challenge the muscles of the trunk to hold a good posture, hurdles can be used to force joints into ranges of movement that otherwise wouldn’t be achieved with standard walking drills. Stepping over hurdles also challenges the deep gluteal stabilizing muscles to control hip and lower limb positions as you attempt to counteract the movements of the opposite leg as it gets moved in different directions.

The main mistake that runners make when performing hurdle drills is to set them too high. If you are excessively tight around the hips or have a poor posture, attempting to force your limbs into positions they can’t adopt will only further compound the issues. You may need to start with small (non-track) hurdles before you progress up to standardsized hurdles on the lowest setting. The target for all runners should be to perform all these drills over hurdles that are set to hip height. If you can’t access hurdles, you will still benefit from performing these drills as walk-throughs. There are dozens of different variations of hurdle drills you can perform, but the ones described here are the basic set that challenges the hips in different planes and directions of movement. Each of these drills can be manipulated to place a greater emphasis upon mobility, gluteal stability or posture, depending upon the quality you wish to overload. Once you have mastered the walk-through variations, most can be completed more dynamically whilst bouncing off the balls of the feet. This retains the benefits of the drills but also develops rhythm and stiffness at ankles and knees. Progressions for each of the walkover drills adopt the same principles so are discussed separately following descriptions of the basic techniques.

KEY INFORMATION

Stepping over hurdles is a great way to develop dynamic mobility, gluteal stability and postural awareness with movements that are specific to running. If you can’t maintain neutral back position as you step over hurdles in different directions, you should lower the height. If you don’t have access to hurdles, you will still benefit from simulating hurdle walkover movements.

Forward Walkover

Aims:

* | Develop hip mobility (flexion, abduction, internal rotation)
* | Enhance postural control (resisting flexion and lateral flexion)
* | Improve gluteal stability and control

Technique:

Figs 12.15(i), 12.15(ii) and 12.15(iii): Forward walkover – step over by extending through one leg and lifting the knee high. Bring the trail leg out and through.

See Figs 12.15(i), 12.15(ii) and 12.15(iii).

* | Stand half a stride back from a row of hurdles placed end on end
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles
* | Extend at the ankle, knee and hip simultaneously so the hips are as high as possible
* | Drive one knee up high so the foot clears and steps over the hurdle
* | Bring the trail leg through by opening the hip outwards and flexing at the hip
* | The knee of the trail leg should lead, so as it comes over the hurdle the shin is parallel to the ground
* | Avoid leaning and collapsing through the back as the leg is lifted over the hurdle
* | Always squeeze the glute of the stance leg to ensure that the free hip is higher than the support side hip

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 6–10 hurdles on each leg lead (walk-back recovery)

Backward Walkover

Aims:

* | Develop hip mobility (flexion, extension, abduction, internal rotation)
* | Enhance postural control (resisting flexion, hyperextension and lateral flexion)
* | Improve gluteal stability and control

Technique:

Figs 12.16(i), 12.16(ii) and 12.16(iii): Backward walkover – lift the knee high and push the heel out and back. Bring the trail leg straight over by lifting the knee high.

See Figs 12.16(i), 12.16(ii) and 12.16(iii).

* | Stand with your back to a row of hurdles placed end on end
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles
* | Lift one leg so your foot can clear the height of the hurdle
* | Push the heel outwards and backwards simultaneously so the foot clears and steps over the hurdle
* | The foot should lead the movement, so as it comes over the hurdle the shin is parallel to the ground
* | Once on the ground, extend the lead leg at ankle, knee and hip simultaneously so the hips are as high as possible
* | Drive the trail-leg knee up high so the foot clears and steps over the hurdle
* | Avoid leaning and collapsing through the back as the leg is lifted over the hurdle
* | Always squeeze the glute of the stance leg to ensure that the free hip is higher than the support-side hip

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 6–10 hurdles each leg lead (walk-back recovery)

Lateral Stepover

Aims:

* | Develop hip mobility (flexion)
* | Enhance postural control (resisting flexion)
* | Improve gluteal stability and control

Technique:

Fig. 12.17 Lateral stepover – step over by extending through one leg and lifting the knee high. The trail leg performs the same action.

See Fig 12.17.

* | Stand side-on to a row of hurdles placed end on end
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles
* | Extend at the ankle, knee and hip simultaneously so the hips are as high as possible
* | Drive one knee up high so the foot clears the hurdle and steps over it sideways
* | Bring the trail leg through in the same sequence by extending into a tall position and lifting the foot over
* | Avoid collapsing through the back as the knee is driven up high over the hurdle
* | Always squeeze the glute of the stance leg to ensure the free hip is higher than the support side hip

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 6–10 hurdles each leg lead (walk-back recovery)

Scissor Walkover

Aims:

* | Develop hip mobility (abduction)
* | Enhance postural control (resisting lateral flexion)
* | Improve gluteal stability and capacity

Technique:

Figs 12.18(i) and 12.18(ii): Scissor walkover – step over forwards by swinging the legs out and round each hurdle alternately.

See Figs 12.18(i) and 12.18(ii).

* | Stand facing a row of hurdles placed end on end
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles
* | Swing one leg out to the side sufficiently wide to move round the outside of the hurdle
* | As the lead leg touches down, swing the trail leg out and around in the same movement
* | The movement should resemble a scissor or pendulum-type action
* | Avoid leaning sideways as the leg swings outwards and round the hurdle
* | Always squeeze the glute of the stance leg to ensure that the free hip is higher than the support side hip
* | This is also very effective performed backwards

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 6–10 hurdles each leg lead (walk-back recovery)

Straight-Leg Kick

Aims:

* | Develop hip mobility (flexion)
* | Enhance postural control (resisting flexion)

Technique:

Figs 12.19(i) and 12.19(ii): Straight-leg kick – step over laterally by kicking the leg high and across whilst maintaining good posture.

See Figs 12.19(i) and 12.19(ii).

* | Stand side-on to a row of hurdles placed end on end
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles
* | Keeping your leg straight, kick it upwards and slightly outwards so it lands the other side of the hurdle
* | Bring the trail leg through with the same sequence by kicking the leg up and pulling slightly across so it lands next to the stance leg
* | Avoid collapsing through the back as the leg is kicked high over the hurdle
* | Always squeeze the glute of the stance leg to ensure the free hip is higher than the support side hip

Prescription:

* | 1–2 x 6–10 hurdles each leg lead (walk-back recovery)

One Foot Stepover

Aims:

* | Develop hip mobility (flexion, abduction, internal rotation)
* | Enhance postural control (resisting flexion and lateral flexion)

Technique:

Figs 12.20(i), 12.20(ii) and 12.20(iii): One foot stepover – step over each hurdle placing only one foot between each.

See Figs 12.20(i), 12.20(ii) and 12.20(iii).

* | Stand half a stride back from a row of hurdles placed end on end
* | Pull yourself tall and tighten your trunk muscles
* | Open the lead-leg hip outwards and flex at the hip to clear and step over the hurdle
* | The knee of the lead leg should lead so that as it comes over the hurdle the shin is parallel to the ground
* | Bring the trail leg through with the same sequence but step over two hurdles so you finish straddling a hurdle.
* | Repeat this sequence so you walk through the hurdles touching one foot down between each
* | Avoid leaning and collapsing through the back as the leg is lifted over the hurdle
* | Always squeeze the glute of the stance leg to ensure that the free hip is higher than the support-side hip

Prescription:

* | 2 x 6–10 hurdles (walk-back recovery)

Hurdle Walkover Progressions

Number of hurdles: The simplest way to progress these drills is to increase the number of hurdles you travel over per set. If you are new to this training technique, six hurdles will suffice; runners who are more familiar with these drills should use up to ten hurdles.

Mobility: Increase the mobility challenge around the hips by raising the height of the hurdles. Ensure you do not sacrifice posture at the expense of simply getting your legs up and over hurdles.

Gluteal stability: Provide more focus on glute stabilizer recruitment by spending a longer time on one leg. This can be achieved by slowing the pace of the drills right down, or by stepping over two hurdles and stepping back over one without the trail leg touching the ground each time.

Fig. 12.21: Overhead hurdle walkovers provide a greater challenge to postural stability.

Posture: Place your hands over your head to increase the length of the lever your trunk has to control and to facilitate an extended position through the chest. Progress further by holding a light medicine ball above your head (see Fig. 12.21). Using an unstable object, such as a ball half filled with water, will further increase demand on trunk stability.

Rhythm and stiffness: Perform each drill with a skip in between the hurdles. If the hurdles are spaced evenly apart, this forces you into a rhythmic pattern that helps co-ordination. Skipping is a low-level plyometric so this progression also improves stiffness qualities at the ankle and knee. Due to the speed with which you are forced to move your legs in order to clear the hurdles when moving quickly, explosive strength of the recovery leg is also challenged.

HIGH INTENSITY ACTIVITIES

This final category contains activities rather than drills that are designed to facilitate the transfer of general strength gains to specific force expression during running. Many coaches and runners already incorporate these types of activity into their training programmes, many often maintaining that this is ‘strength training’ for a distance runner. In fact this is not inaccurate, as sprinting and fast running up steep gradients will certainly provide an overload to the nervous system and muscles that is likely to enhance performance. Relatively quickly, though, this type of highly specific strength training is unlikely to provide much overload. Adding more volume of sprints turns the activity into a full-blown interval-training session that challenges the cardiovascular and metabolic systems. Adding more intensity by attempting to purely run faster is also problematic, because the nervous system is already close to full capacity. Strength training and plyometric training are the means of providing the additional overload required that allows this specific strength work to progress further.

Hopping and Bounding

Unilateral moderate to high intensity plyometrics, such as hopping and bounding, is considered a specific form of strength training, as the pattern of co-ordination and sequencing of movement is very similar to running. These exercises are detailed in Chapter 7 ‘Plyometric Training’, as they primarily overload the mechanisms of the stretch-shortening cycle and possess a higher eccentric demand than sprinting and fast uphill running.

Sprinting

The two main specific strength-training activities recommended are short-distance sprints and hill sprints. Although these might seem very similar activities, the inclusion of a gradient means that different stresses are imposed upon the body, resulting in the development of different physical qualities. Running in a straight line at close to top speed shifts stress towards plyometric qualities as compared to normal speed running. This is because ground contact time is reduced and the leg is required to produce force very quickly to overcome the effects of gravity. Sprinting at close to top speed can therefore be considered a moderate intensity plyometric activity and an explosive exercise for the hip extensors. In addition, the recovery leg is also required to reposition more quickly, which places additional stress on the hamstrings as they work to control the lower leg as it swings through more rapidly.

During hill sprints, the foot contacts the ground sooner than on flat ground, resulting in a deeper angle of knee and hip flexion during the stance phase. It is also easy to observe a more pronounced forward lean during hill running, which is required to bring your centre of mass over the base of support. Travelling up a gradient also means you are required to elevate your mass against gravity to a greater extent than compared to flat running. This results in a longer time in contact with the ground to produce a greater vertical force, and therefore you rely upon performing more muscular work than on using energy stored in the Achilles tendon. Although the ankle still acts in a very stiff manner during ground contact (as it forms the rigid connection to transmit forces from the leg to the ground), the muscles around both the knee and hip are required to contribute to a much greater extent as compared to flat running. Therefore, hill sprints provide a stimulus to develop explosive strength qualities around the knee and hip to propel the body forwards. Hill sprinting is also a great way to improve arm drive: with a longer ground-contact time, there are greater rotational forces to control, therefore a more pronounced and aggressive arm action is required.

Broomstick sprints or ‘no arm’ running may feel rather odd when you first attempt it. Removing the arms from the running action places a greater demand on the trunk musculature to offset the rotational forces created by the legs. It also tends to encourage a more aggressive trail-leg action to counter balance the forces being produced by the stance leg.

KEY INFORMATION

The most specific type of strength training an endurance runner can perform is high intensity running type activities. Activities such as bounding, hill sprints and sprinting develop plyometric qualities and explosive muscle actions that will benefit endurance running performance. Treat these like other forms of strength training and use short distances/durations and take plenty of recovery.

It is also a legitimate argument that the prescription of these training activities is not the remit of the S&C coach. For many runners the decision of when and how much of these activities to include should be the decision of the technical coach. Ideally, the technical running coach and the S&C coach should work closely together to prescribe training and to coach the athlete on these activities.

In order to achieve an overload to the nervous and muscular systems during these activities they must be performed at a high intensity, close to maximum. Despite moving along at close to your limit, it is important that you do not allow your technique to break down or change your style in an attempt to eke out some extra speed. Focus upon being fast, but relaxed and under control. To ensure you can perform repetitions at a high intensity, work periods should be kept short (5–10sec), and you should ensure full recovery (2–3min of slow walking is ideal). Remember, although you are running, this isn’t endurance training: it is specific strength training!

Strides/Sprints and Broomstick Sprints

Aims:

* | Development of explosive strength and stiffness qualities
* | Improvement of inter-muscular coordination (force expression during running skill)
* | Enhance eccentric hamstring strength and control
* | Broomstick running: improve control of rotational forces through the trunk and hips

Technique:

* | Select a flat and even surface that ideally is slightly soft underfoot (for example, an athletics track or sports pitch)
* | Following a thorough warm-up, stride out at close to three-quarters effort
* | Increase speed over subsequent repetitions
* | Focus on sprinting with relaxation in the upper body, a tall posture, a high knee lift and being fast off the ground
* | For broomstick sprints, hold a wooden dowel across your upper back. Alternatively hug your upper body by wrapping your arms around yourself

Prescription:

* | 3–8 x 50m at close to top speed (2–3 min slow walk back recovery)

Progressions:

* | Increase the speed of sprints
* | Steep hill sprints
* | Reduce the volume and frequency of this work, perform additional strength and plyometric training before re-introducing sprints to your programme

Steep Hill Sprints

Aims:

* | Develop explosive strength in the legs and stiffness qualities
* | Improve inter-muscular co-ordination force expression during running skill)
* | Develop an aggressive arm action

Technique:

* | Select a hill with a steep gradient (>10 per cent)
* | Following a thorough warm-up, sprint up the hill at close to three-quarters effort
* | Increase speed over subsequent repetitions
* | Focus on sprinting with an aggressive arm drive, a slight forward lean into the hill, and an explosive piston-style action with the legs

Prescription:

* | 3–6 x 40–60m at close to maximum effort 2–3min slow walk-down recovery)

Progressions:

* | Increase the speed of sprints
* | Select a hill with a steeper gradient to develop explosive strength in the legs
* | Reduce the gradient of the hill to increase specificity and emphasis on ankle stiffness

CHAPTER 13: MOBILIZATIONS AND STRETCHES

Acommon sight before and after training runs and races is groups of runners going through a routine of dynamic or static stretches. Stretches are usually performed in the belief that they will improve performance, enhance recovery and reduce the risk of injury. Possessing an adequate range of movement at joints is certainly important, but when is the best time to stretch, what type of stretches should be performed, and how much stretching is actually necessary? The aim of this chapter is to answer these questions, and to present a number of important techniques designed to optimize range of movement.

The terms ‘flexibility’ and ‘mobility’ are often used interchangeably, but it is important to start by distinguishing the two. ‘Flexibility’ refers to the range of movement that can be achieved at a joint and is often measured by isolating one joint at a time. ‘Mobility’, on the other hand, is the range of movement that can be exhibited at a joint during an active or dynamic movement. It is often easy to identify the reasons for a lack of flexibility in a specific area, and simply reduce tightness with some targeted stretching exercises. This doesn’t always improve mobility, however, which is a much more complex quality. Mobility is influenced by other joints and muscles involved in a movement, co-ordination of the nervous system, and specific structural restrictions around joints. For a dynamic activity such as running it is therefore more important to have adequate mobility than simply to be flexible at specific joints.

KEY INFORMATION

‘Flexibility’ refers to the range of movement available at a specific joint, whereas ‘mobility’ is the range that a joint can work through during a dynamic movement, like running.

WHY IS MOBILITY IMPORTANT?

For a sport such as gymnastics, it is obvious why mobility is an important quality to possess in abundance. But for a runner who appears to move through a comparatively short range of movement with every stride, it may seem less obvious why improving mobility is important. Nevertheless there are several reasons why keeping joints moving through a healthy range is crucial for performance and for minimizing the risk of injury.

Joint Restrictions cause Stress and Compensations

When a joint moves, its end range will be defined by anatomical structures that physically prevent it moving any further, or by the nervous system preventing a muscle from fully relaxing. If anatomical structures (such as the joint capsule, ligaments, tendons and connective tissue) restrict range, forcing a joint repeatedly into a position it doesn’t want to adopt is likely to start irritating and causing damage to some of these tissues. In particular, ensuring your hips can move through sufficient range will reduce stress on other structures around your pelvis and your lower back.

If a joint is restricted in its range of motion and that joint is required to move through full range, instead of simply halting the movement, your body will usually find another way of completing the task. A simple example of this is when you perform a squat. If you have excessive tightness around the hips and ankles in particular, it is still possible to perform a deep squat, but to do so you either need to round your back excessively or allow your heels to come off the floor. Both of these positions place high stress on quite weak structures that are vulnerable to injury. Moving your back in a flexed position repeatedly will lead to degeneration of spinal discs, and excessive flexion of the knees places undue stress on knee ligaments. There are numerous other examples, including many from the running stride, of tightness in one joint causing compensatory stress to another area.

To evaluate mobility, practitioners in the health and fitness industry commonly use movement screens, such as the one described in Chapter 4. Several scientific papers using participants from a range of backgrounds and sports have shown that a low score on a movement screen predicts the risk of injury. This provides support for the argument that mobility is important in minimizing injury risk, but further assessment would be required to reveal whether instability, tightness, poor control or imbalances were the underlying issue.

Excessive Tightness causes Poor Posture

Posture | Lordosis | Kyphosis | Flat Back
Anatomical position | Inward curvature of lumbar spine Often outward curvature of thoracic spine | Outward curvature of thoracic spine Often forward pelvic tilt | Backward pelvic tilt Often with chin poke position of head
Muscles to stretch | Hip flexors Lower back extensors | Pectorals Shoulder internal rotators Abdominals | Abdominals Hamstrings
Muscles to strengthen | Gluteals Hamstrings | Thoracic extensors Scapula retractors | Hip flexors Back extensors

Table 13a: Typical poor postures and muscles to target for stretching and strengthening.

Poor postures, such as those described in Chapter 3 (see Figs 3.5–3.8), are usually the result of excessive tightness and/or weakness in the muscles responsible for maintaining the correct position of the spine and pelvis. Running with these postures will tend to under-recruit important muscles such as the gluteals, and place excessive reliance on other muscles, which will ultimately compromise performance. Equally, poor postures result in compensations elsewhere in the body, which places excessive stress on other tissues and structures. Table 13a identifies the muscles that are typically tight and weak for the three most common poor postures. If you adopt any of these postures, aim to stretch regularly the muscles identified as being tight, and introduce strength exercises for the muscles around the hips.

Joints are Required to Move into Wide Ranges

Almost every functional movement pattern we perform requires multiple joints to move into wide ranges. Having an adequate level of mobility will allow uncompromised pain-free movement and therefore the correct muscles can be recruited for a given task. If your mobility is limited, in one or on both sides, there is certainly a need to improve your range of movement to ensure that performance is optimized. Generally, the evidence from scientific studies also supports the idea that a long-term static-stretching programme improves a muscle’s ability to generate force through wide ranges, and therefore performance is enhanced.

KEY INFORMATION

Having an adequate level of mobility, particularly around the hips, ankles and thoracic spine, is important for maintaining a sound posture, performing everyday tasks and preventing compensatory movements.

STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE MOBILITY AND FLEXIBILITY

Many factors have been mentioned to explain why a joint cannot move through a normal healthy range of movement. Restrictions may be related to the joint capsule, ligaments that attach bones in the area, the properties of tendons, electrical messages sent from the nervous system, and the connective tissue found within muscles. Often it is difficult to identify which of these structures or systems is the limiting factor, therefore a multi-strategy approach to improving mobility is important. Generally speaking, there are four main strategies for developing the range of movement you can achieve at different joints: active stretches, dynamic mobilizations, soft tissue release work and static stretching.

Active Stretches

This category of stretches simply involves putting a single joint through range in a dynamic but controlled fashion using muscular force to reach end positions. These stretches are ideal as warm-up or movement preparation exercises, as they are dynamic in nature. They also stimulate blood flow, prevent body temperature dropping, and activate the nervous system. The benefit of these types of stretch as compared to dynamic mobilizations is that they focus on one joint at a time. If range is compromised at a joint, your body will find a way around it with multi-joint mobilizations, whereas active stretches carry less skill so specific tightness will be more obvious.

To move a joint to the limit of its range requires one muscle to contract and another to relax. This reciprocal relationship between muscles around different joints is governed by the nervous system, but is one of the main limiting factors that prevent some joints achieving full range. When a muscle starts to lengthen, a feedback signal is sent to the brain indicating that its position is changing. If the muscle lengthens to a position of extreme range, as a protective response the brain will send a signal that prevents the muscle lengthening any further. By taking joints towards the end of their range regularly, this response starts to desensitize and a greater range of movement can be achieved.

Active stretches should be completed in a relatively stable environment so muscles are allowed to fully relax without fighting to maintain balance and stability. Move in and out of range in a dynamic, rhythmic and controlled manner, maintaining good posture throughout the set.

Dynamic Mobilizations

Whereas active stretching involves improving nervous system co-ordination around a specific joint, this category of exercises involves co-ordinating multiple joints and muscle groups during functional movements through wide ranges. These types of movement are generally preferred to other forms of stretching and mobilizing because of the possibility of their transfer to running and general everyday tasks. These exercises will promote activation and co-ordination of the nervous system to a greater extent than active stretches, but provide less specific focus than active stretches on joints that may be tight. Loading these exercises (see Chapter 6) will promote further mobility adaptations as the added resistance forces joints into wider ranges and requires muscles to relax and contract to a greater extent. This means they are ideal as movement preparation for a resistance training session, but can also be used prior to running sessions or as a separate mobility training session.

Active Stretches

Bench rockers

Split squat

Lateral split squat

Leg swings

Knee hugs

Ankle bends

Dynamic Mobilizations

Wall angels

Walking arabesque

Spiderman crawl

Walking lunge

Bodyweight squat

Hurdle walkovers*

* Refer to Chapter 12 on Technical Running Drills Perform twelve repetitions of each exercise one after the other in the order listed.

Table 13b: Suggested active stretches and dynamic mobilizations to incorporate into a warm-up routine.

Table 13b shows a suggested series of warm-up stretches and mobilizations you could incorporate into your warm-up routine following a light jog or pulse-raising activity, but prior to any high intensity or loaded exercises/drills. It is only necessary to include one set of each exercise unless you have identified specific areas of tightness you need to work on. Aim for twelve repetitions of each exercise, focusing on technique and posture. Move continuously from one exercise to the next but without rushing and getting out of breath. Hurdle walkovers provide a highly specific set of drills that can be incorporated into an exclusive drills or mobility training session.

KEY INFORMATION

Active stretches involve taking joints to the limit of their range for a second or two in a controlled but dynamic manner. Mobilizations develop range across multiple joints using basic fundamental movements. Both active stretches and mobilizations are ideal to use as part of a warm-up before both running and S&C sessions.

Bench Rockers

Aim:

* | Stretch the ribcage/thoracic spine and activate the spinal extensors

Technique:

Fig. 13.1: Bench rocker end-of-range position.

See Fig. 13.1.

* | Kneel down one stride back from a bench or chair
* | Flex at the hip and place your elbows close together on the bench
* | Interlock your hands behind your head
* | Push your hips straight backwards, and as you do so, lift and push your chest towards the ground
* | Ensure your lower back doesn’t hyper-extend by keeping your abdominals tight
* | Hold this end position for a second or two before rocking back to the start position

Progression:

* | Perform with straight arms to increase leverage and stretch on the latissimus dorsi

Split Squats

Aim:

* | Stretch the hip flexors and activate the quadriceps and gluteals

Technique:

Fig. 13.2(i): Split squat start position.

Fig. 13.2(ii): Split squat end position.

See Figs 13.2(i) and 13.2(ii).

* | With both feet pointing forwards, take an exaggerated step so the rear heel rises from the ground
* | Lower the hips towards the ground by bending both legs
* | Shift the weight towards the back part of the front foot
* | Keep the rear leg as relaxed as possible
* | Descend until the thigh of the front leg breaks parallel with the ground, and the knee of the rear foot is positioned just above the ground

Progression:

* | Raise the hands above the head to mobilize the thoracic spine and activate the trunk musculature

Lateral Split Squat

Aim:

* | Stretch the hip adductor muscles (groin) and activate the abductors (gluteals)

Technique:

Fig. 13.3(i): Lateral split squat start position.

Fig. 13.3(ii): Lateral split squat bottom position.

See Figs 13.3(i) and 13.3(ii)

* | Stand with your feet twice shoulder-width apart
* | Keeping the back straight, slowly lunge to one side by bending the knee and pushing the hips back
* | You should feel a stretch in the groin of the straight-leg side
* | Hold for a second or two and then shift your hips laterally to the other side

Progression:

* | Split the legs wider to increase the intensity of the stretch

Leg Swings

Aim:

* | Stretch the hamstrings and activate the hip flexors and trunk muscles

Technique:

Fig. 13.4(i): Leg swings back position.

Fig. 13.4(ii): Leg swings top position.

See Figs 13.4(i) and 13.4(ii).

* | Stand at arm’s length from a wall or stable object and hold on for balance
* | Pull your posture up tall and tighten your back
* | Swing your outside leg up straight until you feel a stretch at the back of your thigh
* | Allow it to swing backwards quickly, but without forcing your lower back into hyper-extension

Progression:

* | Perform as a walking-leg swing

Knee Hugs

Aim:

* | Stretch the gluteals and activate the ankle flexor muscles and the opposite side gluteal stabilizers

Technique:

Fig. 13.5: Knee hugs.

See Fig. 13.5.

* | Maintaining a tall posture and neutral back, lift one leg off the ground
* | Grab the leg as it lifts with one hand below the knee and one just above the ankle
* | Pull the knee tight to your chest so your gluteals stretch
* | Maintain balance and alignment on your support leg by squeezing your glutes hard

Progression:

* | Rise up on to the ball of your foot as you hug your knee

Ankle Bends

Aim:

* | Stretch your deep calf muscles and activate your ankle flexor muscles

Technique:

Fig. 13.6: Ankle bends.

See Fig. 13.6.

* | Stand half a stride back from a wall and hold on for balance
* | Place one leg forwards and one slightly back
* | Keeping your back heel on the ground, bend the back leg until you feel a stretch in your calf
* | Hold for a second or two before straightening

Progressions:

* | Push your knee in different directions as an alternative to stretch different parts of your calf
* | Raise your toes to stretch your plantar fascia on the sole of the foot

Wall Angels

Aims:

* | Mobilize the shoulder joint, shoulder girdle and thoracic spine region
* | Activate the scapula retractors and thoracic spinal extensors

Technique:

Fig. 13.7(i): Wall angels start position.

Fig. 13.7(ii): Wall angels bottom position.

See Figs 13.7(i) and 13.7(ii).

* | Lightly lean against a wall
* | Keeping your lower back neutral and abdominals tight, lift your chest and raise your arms above your head to a Y position
* | Allow your hands to drop to shoulder level by bending your elbows slowly
* | As your hands reach shoulder height, pull your shoulder blades down and together
* | Slowly return to the start position, ensuring you lift your chest and keep your back straight

Progression:

* | Perform with a light barbell as a press behind the neck

Walking Arabesque

Aim:

* | Mobilize and activate the hip into flexion (hamstrings and gluteals)

Technique:

See description in Chapter 4 (Movement Screening).

Progression:

* | At the bottom part of the movement, open your hip by rotating your leg and torso away from your supporting leg

Spiderman Crawl

Aim:

* | Mobilize the hip in multiple directions and activate the trunk muscles

Technique:

Fig. 13.8(i): Spiderman crawl start position.

Fig. 13.8(ii): Spiderman crawl top position.

See Figs 13.8(i) and 13.8(ii).

* | Adopt a press-up position with your hands directly under your shoulders
* | Squeeze your shoulder blades together and tighten your trunk
* | Step one hand forwards slightly
* | Bring the knee of the opposite leg up and outside your body
* | Move the second hand forwards, followed by the second leg
* | Progress forward in this crawling pattern, keeping the hips level and the back straight

Progressions:

* | Perform a sideways crawling pattern, allowing the hands to cross over
* | Each time a leg moves forwards, bend the elbows and drop the hips so the chest is just above the ground; push out of this position to progress forwards

Walking Lunge

Aim:

* | Mobilize and activate the hip into extension (hip flexors, quadriceps and gluteals)

Technique:

Fig. 13.9: Walking lunge.

See Fig. 13.9.

* | Take an exaggerated step forwards and drop the hips towards the ground by bending the back and the front legs so the heel of the back leg rises
* | Keep the posture tall and the trunk tight with the ankle–knee–hip of the front leg aligned
* | Drive off the front foot into another exaggerated step forwards
* | Keep the weight towards the rear part of the front foot on each step forwards

Progressions:

Fig. 13.10: Overhead walking lunge.

Fig. 13.11: Walking lunge with rotation.

* | Perform a high step by bringing the heel close to the buttock as it comes through; this will mobilize into hip flexion, increase eccentric strength demand, and challenge balance/control
* | Raise the hands above the head to mobilize the thoracic spine and challenge the trunk musculature (see Fig. 13.10)
* | Rotate the torso in the bottom position to mobilize the spine and challenge the gluteal stabilizers and biceps femoris to maintain ankle–knee–hip alignment (see Fig. 13.11)
* | Reach forwards in the bottom position so the hands touch the ground lightly; this will tilt your pelvis backwards and increase the intensity of the stretch to the hip flexors. Pointing a hand to the sky in this position can also challenge thoracic rotation

Bodyweight Squat

Aims:

* | Mobilize and activate the hip in multiple directions
* | Activate the trunk muscles and the thoracic extensors

Technique:

Fig. 13.12: Bodyweight squat.

See Fig. 13.12. See also the description in Chapter 6 (Resistance Training), but perform the exercise unloaded with the hands interlocked behind the head.

Progressions:

* | Perform a full overhead squat (see Chapter 4).
* | Perform with the feet in a wide position to mobilize the adductor muscles (groin) to a greater extent
* | Perform with the feet narrow to challenge ankle mobility to a greater extent

SOFT TISSUE RELEASE WORK

Passive structures such as ligaments and the joint capsule primarily limit range of motion, but these tissues show very little change to any intervention designed to improve mobility. The nervous system also restricts movement, but as explained above, practising movement and gaining strength through wide ranges will improve co-ordination. The other area that can restrict range are the vast amounts of connective tissue that hold muscles together like glue.

Repeated muscle contractions, particularly of the eccentric type, causes damage to connective tissue. During the running stride, the muscles in the legs are subjected to repeated eccentric loading, and this often leads to feelings of soreness. These muscles play important roles in stabilizing the ankle, knee and hip every time the foot strikes the ground, and do so within quite short ranges of movement so the leg doesn’t collapse and the Achilles tendon and gluteal muscles can function correctly. The stiffness or tightness you might feel in your calves, feet, quadriceps and hamstrings is perhaps partly down to the connective tissue becoming ‘bunched’ and ‘knotted’ in the areas of the muscle that have been under repeated stress. These are often referred to as ‘trigger points’, which are painful to touch and often produce referred pain elsewhere in the muscle. These trigger points can be one of the contributing factors that affect mobility of a joint.

To ‘iron out’ these adhesions in overstressed muscles, the best advice here would be to have a massage a few times a week! For most runners however, this recommendation is unrealistic both practically and financially. The next best alternative is to use ‘self-myofascial release’ techniques, which is a fancy term for self-massage, usually using a foam roller. Foam rollers range in price from quite stylish-looking implements that retail at around £40, to others that still do the job perfectly well for less than £10.

KEY INFORMATION

Following hard runs, it is likely that you will experience some muscle soreness and specific areas will feel tight. Applying a moderate amount of pressure using a foam roller to the points of your muscle that feel tight is likely to improve range of movement and enhance recovery.

Foam rollers provide a compression force to tight areas of a muscle, which is thought to help break down areas of tightness, improve blood flow to the surrounding tissues and therefore restore normal range. The value of foam-rolling techniques is still up for debate, however, and only a few scientific studies have looked into their effectiveness as a warm-up and recovery tool. Foam rolling can be performed before or after a training run, or as a separate session in its own right. Performing foam-rolling techniques before a training session has been shown to improve range of movement, therefore it may be useful to include these as part of your preparation routine for an S&C session. However, foam rolling fails to provide the acute physiological adjustments to the cardiovascular and nervous systems that a conventional warm-up can deliver prior to a running session. Therefore if foam rolling is used, it is recommended that it be performed after running sessions or as a separate activity.

Fig. 13.13(i): Technique for the self-myofascial release of the plantar fascia using a golf ball.

Fig. 13.13(ii): Self-myofascial release of the calves using a foam roller.

Fig. 13.13(iii): Self-myofascial release of the hamstrings using a foam roller.

Fig. 13.13(iv): Self-myofascial release of the quadriceps using a foam roller.

Fig. 13.13(v): Self-myofascial release of the gluteals using a foam roller.

The areas to focus on when foam rolling are the ones that feel tight, or where you feel restriction when you performed the initial movement assessments. Typical tight areas in runners are shown in Figs 13.13(i) to 13.13(v), and suggested positions and techniques given for the self-myofascial release of tight connective tissue. Try to address each of these areas every time you foam roll. Self-myofascial release work should only be performed on muscles: avoid the lower back and neck regions, and do not foam roll joints or tendons directly.

To find the areas of your muscles that require releasing, follow these simple instructions:

* | Apply moderate pressure to a muscle through the foam roller using the weight of your body
* | Support your weight through your arms: this will allow you to control the pressure that is being applied
* | Roll slowly at a rate of about an inch a second until you reach a particularly painful area
* | Pause on a painful area for several seconds and relax through the discomfort until it begins to ease and you can sink deeper against the roller
* | You could also try rocking very slightly backwards and forwards as if you were trying to pick apart the knotted area
* | Continue down the muscle pausing at every tight spot
* | When you’ve run the roller down the full muscle length, return to each of the areas where you located a trigger point for another application of pressure, before changing muscles.

Avoid inducing excessive pain, as this is likely to cause more muscle damage and even bruising that will result in even tighter muscles. At the end of the rolling session your muscles should feel warm, but more relaxed.

STATIC STRETCHES

Contrary to popular belief, static stretching is probably the least beneficial strategy to improve mobility. This isn’t to say it is a complete waste of time, as it does produce some valuable physiological and anatomical results if performed regularly after training sessions.

Following a running session, muscles will remain in a high state of tone or activation that shortens their natural resting length. Performing a routine of stretches, particularly for the muscles that have had a high involvement during running, will prevent this sensation of tightness and stimulate blood flow, therefore aiding recovery.

Performing static stretches will not alter the length of your muscle in the long term, nor change the properties of the connective tissue and ligaments that are restricting range of movement. If you observe an increase in flexibility at a joint, it is likely to be the result of an improvement in ‘stretch tolerance’. This is predominantly a nervous system mechanism, which means that when you stretch, a lower level of discomfort is felt for the same amount of force applied to the muscle. When moving joints through wide ranges of motion during running or strength training you will therefore be able to move further into range before you feel as if you’ve reached your limit.

Thoracic extensions

Hip flexor lunge

Seated groin

FADIR

FABER

Lying hamstring

Bent leg calf

Kneeling plantar fascia

Table 13c: Suggested post-run static stretching routine. Hold each stretch for 20–30 seconds each side and perform twice through in any order.

Stretches should be performed regularly as part of your running routine, rather than waiting until a muscle becomes tight. Working through the series of eight stretches highlighted in Table 13c will ensure you hit all the main areas that are vulnerable to becoming tight as a runner. Hold each stretch for 20–30sec at an intensity of mild discomfort, and perform two sets of each stretch. This shouldn’t take you more than 15min in total. An important feature of static stretching is that each stretch is performed in a stable and balanced position, so ideally they should be carried out on the floor and next to a wall. Unlike dynamic mobilizations, where you must control the force and range, the muscle on full stretch must relax as much as possible, and this simply isn’t possible if you cannot maintain your balance whilst performing a stretch.

With these features of a stretching session in mind, after a run is an ideal time to stretch. Muscle temperature is at its highest after a training session and therefore connective tissue at its most malleable. There are also no subsequent activities that may be negatively affected by lying on the floor for extended periods.

KEY INFORMATION

Static stretching should be performed after a running session in a stable and balanced position. Stretching will help restore a normal resting length to muscles that have been overworked and improve blood flow to speed recovery. Hold each stretch twice for 20-30 seconds.

Should I Perform Static Stretches during my Warm-Up?

This may be the question you were searching for in this chapter, because it is certainly one of the most commonly asked questions by endurance runners! There are numerous scientific investigations that have tried to establish whether performing static stretches during a warm-up acutely lowers injury risk and enhances performance. Attempting to draw conclusions from these papers is problematic due to the vast differences in study design and participant characteristics. However, in general it seems that static stretching prior to a training run or race will not enhance your performance, and may even have a detrimental impact. This is probably because, for an activity such as endurance running, a relatively high level of stiffness is required in the joints of the lower limb in order for the limb to stabilize quickly and utilize elastic energy. Diminishing stiffness in a tendon or muscle may result in a joint moving further into range than necessary, and therefore more energy is required to bring it back out of this position.

Likewise there appears to be little value in performing a static stretching routine in a warm-up in an attempt to reduce injury risk. Several review articles in this area have concluded that there appears to be no link between stretching before exercise and any incidence of injury.

There are a several important caveats to these conclusions around static stretching during a warm-up. Firstly, the majority of scientific studies which found that stretching had a negative impact, used relatively long-hold static stretches (30sec or longer), which probably don’t represent the length a runner will typically hold a stretch for. Static stretching of short duration (<10 sec) doesn’t seem to adversely affect performance. Secondly, if static stretching has been part of your warm-up routine for a long time and you believe it helps your performance, suddenly removing this component of your preparation is likely to have a negative impact, at least in the short term. Thirdly, if you are recovering from an injury or have a muscle/joint that is particularly prone to becoming tight, a couple of short-hold static stretches may well be beneficial, and may help offset stress to other areas.

Finally, bear in mind that this short discussion has been based around warm-ups for running sessions. For a resistance-training session, which doesn’t include explosive strength or plyometric exercises, performing several static stretches to prepare the joints that will need to move through wide ranges may well have benefit.

So prior to a run, a series of long-hold static stretches to remove passive stiffness may not be a good thing and probably won’t lower your injury risk, whereas long-term static stretching is still likely to offer benefits to mobility. However, unless you have a personal preference for a few short-duration static stretches prior to a run, it is recommended that you leave your static stretching until after your workout and stick to dynamic mobilizations to prepare for your runs.

KEY INFORMATION

Performing long-hold (>30 seconds) static stretches during your warm-up may have a negative impact upon your performance and will not reduce injury risk. Stick to active stretches and dynamic mobilizations before your running sessions. If you are in a routine of performing a few short-hold (<10 seconds) static stretches before you run, this isn’t likely to adversely affect your performance.

Thoracic Extensions

Aim:

* | Mobilize the thoracic spine and the ribcage

Technique:

Fig. 13.14: Thoracic extension over a foam roller or medicine ball.

See Fig. 13.14.

* | Sit on a soft surface with your knees bent at a right angle
* | Place a foam roller or medicine ball behind you so when you lean back it sits in the centre of your back
* | Place your hands on the side of your head and pull your elbows together
* | Tighten your abdominals to prevent your lower back hyper-extending
* | Lie back, arching your chest around the roller/ball
* | Hold for 5sec, before rolling 1in further up your back
* | Keep moving up your back until you reach just below your neck

Hip Flexor Lunge

Aim:

* | Stretch the hip flexor muscle group

Technique:

Fig. 13.15(i): Hip flexor stretch.

Fig. 13.15(ii): Quadriceps stretch.

See Figs 13.15(i) and 13.15(ii).

* | Adopt a lunge position but ensure the front knee is directly over the ankle and the back knee rests on a soft surface
* | Pull your posture tall but try to tilt your pelvis backwards so your lower back flattens
* | By pushing forwards and slightly downwards, you should feel a stretch across the front of your hip
* | Bend the back leg so the foot is resting on a low bench or chair. This will stretch the muscle in your thigh (the rectus femoris) that contributes towards flexing your hip (see Fig. 13.15(ii))
* | Ensure you hold on to a stable object to maintain balance

Seated Groin

Aim:

* | Stretch the adductor group (groin muscles) and internal rotators of the hip to some extent

Technique:

Fig. 13.16: Seated groin stretch.

See Fig. 13.16.

* | Sit against a wall with your back in a neutral position
* | Pull the soles of your feet together so your knees point outwards
* | You should feel a stretch in your groin on both sides
* | Pull your heels close to you, or push down on your knees to increase the intensity of the stretch

FADIR (Flexion, Adduction and Internal Rotation)

Aim:

* | Stretch the external rotators of the hip (the deep gluteal muscles) and the larger gluteal muscle to some extent

Technique:

Fig. 13.17: FADIR stretch.

See Fig. 13.17.

* | Lie on a soft surface with the feet hip width apart flat on a wall, and the knees at a right-angle
* | Step one foot slightly further out and allow it to drop inwards across the body
* | Rest the other foot on top of the knee to pull it further across and inwards
* | Ensure the hip of the side being stretched doesn’t rise off the ground

FABER (Flexion, Abduction and External Rotation)

Aim:

* | Stretch the internal rotators of the hip (the deep gluteal muscles) and the adductors (groin) to some extent

Technique:

Fig. 13.18: FABER stretch.

See Fig. 13.18.

* | Adopt the same start position as the FADIR stretch, with the feet flat against a wall and the knees at a right-angle
* | Pull the outside ankle of one leg so it rests just below the knee of the opposite leg
* | Push gently on the inside of your knee to increase the intensity of the stretch
* | Ensure the hip of the side being stretched doesn’t rise off the ground

Lying Hamstring

Aim:

* | Stretch the hamstrings and, to some extent, the calf muscles

Technique:

Fig. 13.19: Lying hamstring.

See Fig. 13.19.

* | Lie on your back on a soft surface and lift one leg towards you, ensuring your knee remains straight
* | Grasp your leg just below your knee to pull the leg closer, aiming to achieve a position beyond vertical
* | Alternatively, if you have a door frame, use this to anchor your leg at the end of its range
* | Ensure the lower back remains neutral. If you cannot maintain this position it is likely your hip flexors are also very tight and abdominals weak

Bent Leg Calf

Aim:

* | Stretch your calf muscles (particularly the soleus) and Achilles tendon

Technique:

* | See the description of ‘Ankle Bends’ earlier in this chapter, but hold each stretch for 20–30sec
* | Take the leg being stretched further away from the wall, and straighten the knee to stretch the gastrocnemius muscle in the calf (and the hamstrings to some extent)

Kneeling Plantar Fascia

Aim:

* | Stretch the plantar fascia tissue on the soles of your feet

Technique:

Fig. 13.20: Kneeling plantar fascia stretch.

See Fig. 13.20.

* | Kneel down on a soft surface
* | Pull your toes tight to your shins so you are resting on your knees and the balls of your feet
* | You should feel the fascia that runs down the centre of your feet stretching
* | Increase the intensity of the stretch by resting more of your weight through your heels

HYPERMOBILITY

A major (and possibly unfair) assumption that has been made throughout this chapter is that most runners lack adequate mobility. There are, of course, many runners who do not lack mobility and exhibit an excessive range of motion at joints. This is often referred to as being ‘double-jointed’, or hypermobile. For some sports this is a distinct advantage, but for endurance running, this excessive range needs to be accompanied by strength in muscles and stiffness in connective tissues that allows for range to be controlled well. Stiffness in connective tissue is developed with strength and plyometric training, but having increased stiffness doesn’t mean that these tissues will reduce mobility at a joint: they can still move through a wide range, it just takes a higher application of force to do so.

USEFUL STRETCHING PROGRESSIONS

A number of variations to the prescription of static stretches has emerged over the last few years, and these are potentially very useful. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss the relative merits of these techniques and provide detailed examples. Each is underpinned by sound anatomical and physiological mechanisms, and if used appropriately in the correct circumstances will provide far superior gains in mobility than simply using the basic set of stretches suggested in Table 13c.

Banded Distraction Stretches

Fig. 13.21: Example of a banded distraction stretch.

Often the reason that a normal range of motion cannot be achieved at a joint is that the articulating surfaces of the bones are moving across each other incorrectly, causing a structural restriction in the joint. By anchoring a resistance band to a stable object, pulling the band tight and looping it round the joint being stretched, it is possible to manipulate the joint so the bony surfaces interact with normal motion. This may sound complicated, but it really isn’t. Fig. 13.21 shows a simple example of the bent-leg calf stretch being performed with a banded distraction. This is suitable if you feel a blocking sensation at the front of your ankle when you perform the standard calf stretch: the band pulls the bones of the ankle that are causing the impingement backwards slightly so the path of the joint is cleared for a greater range to be achieved. Spin round the other way and apply the banded distraction from your heel, and you should feel the intensity of the stretch shift to the insertion point of your Achilles tendon in your heel.

There are hundreds of variations of these distraction stretches. The band can be applied from many different angles and directions, so find a set that works well for you and your specific mobility limitations. This technique was popularized by the American physical therapist, Kelly Starrett, and his book Becoming a Supple Leopard, which is well worth a read, describes these techniques in detail.

Contract-Relax

Fig. 13.22: Example of a contract-relax partner stretch.

The contract-relax method of stretching utilizes a phenomenon known as ‘proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation’. By stretching a muscle to the limit of its range for 10sec, and then briefly contracting that muscle for 3–5sec, you will bring about a reduction in the inhibitory signals being sent from the nervous system that prevent the muscle lengthening further. Following a near maximal contraction, release the tension and move into a deeper range with a stretch for 15–20sec. This technique is best performed with a partner, as it is difficult to create high tension in a muscle if you are resisting against yourself. An example of this set-up is shown in Fig. 13.22.

Fascial Stretching

Fig. 13.23: Fascial stretch example.

The purpose of soft-tissue release work and static stretching is partly to relieve tightness in the trigger points that have developed in overused regions of muscle. Fascial stretching recognizes that connective tissue is interwoven, not just between individual muscle fibres, but also across multiple joints, and importantly it is all attached together like a giant bedsheet wrapping around your body. A fascial stretch attempts to pull the entire length of the fascia taut. This involves moving multiple joints simultaneously into positions of rotation and end range to achieve a truly intense stretch. Fig. 13.23 shows one such pose.

KEY INFORMATION

There are several highly effective stretching techniques that can be used as progressions to your standard stretching routine. If you have access to resistance bands or a partner, distraction stretches and the contract-relax method are very useful. Microstretching is a less aggressive form of static stretching that may offer superior benefits long-term if you have the time to invest.

Microstretching

This technique was first introduced to me in 2009 by Nikos Apostolopoulos, as a way of maximizing adaptation from stretching techniques but substantially reducing additional and unnecessary stress to muscles caused by stretching too aggressively. The technique uses standard stretches but prescribes a much lighter intensity that is held for a longer duration. Instead of taking your joint to a position of ‘mild discomfort’, which might typically be around 80 per cent of maximal perceived exertion, stop at 30–40 per cent intensity so you can feel a very gentle stretch. Hold this position for 60sec, then switch sides, and repeat three times each side for every stretch. Runners who have time to complete this protocol twice a day are likely to see superior gains in flexibility and recovery with this approach, as compared to conventional static stretching methods.

4 | ORGANIZING YOUR STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING

The previous two sections of this book have armed you with a glossary of S&C exercises that you can now use to improve your running performance and lower the risk of injury. The task now is to select the most appropriate exercises that cater for your individual needs and fit round your running training. Unfortunately there is no scientific formula or proven method for designing the perfect training programme, but there are certainly some important principles that you need to understand, which will ensure you get the most out of your S&C training.

CHAPTER 14: PLANNING YOUR STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the concept of ‘periodization’. This essentially means dividing time into periods and mapping out the main objective(s) for each block of time, so suitable training activities can be selected. There is plenty of evidence that pre-planned variations in exercise selection, and volume and intensity within cycles of a training programme, produce superior results to unstructured or randomized approaches to training.

You may well already have a periodized running programme that is designed to prepare you for a specific event in the future. Many of the principles described in this chapter also apply to your programme of running training, but the focus for this chapter will be on how S&C activities should be planned around the running you are carrying out.

VOLUME AND INTENSITY

The terms ‘volume’ and ‘intensity’ are synonymous with any discussions around planning, so it is important to define them. Volume of training refers to the total amount of work you complete in a training period. For running, this will be the total distance you run in a defined period, and for strength training, how much load you have lifted. For conditioning-based activities, the number of sets or repetitions you complete is a useful indicator of volume. Intensity relates to the rate that work is performed during training, which is a function of how much force you exert and how quickly you produce that force.

In simple terms, volume reflects the quantity of work that is performed, and intensity the quality of your training. There is generally an inverse relationship between the two, meaning that if a physical attribute requires a volume-driven approach to improve, intensity of training is likely to be low. Equally, if intensity is high because a training exercise demands a high force or rapid application of force, volume will need to be low to maintain quality.

KEY INFORMATION

Planning your training involves dividing your programme into blocks of time and setting yourself a clear objective for each period. Volume of training means how much distance you’ve covered or weight you’ve lifted in a period of time. Intensity is related to how fast or explosive your training has been.

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANNING

There is evidence dating back centuries that sportsmen and women planned their programmes of physical preparation well in advance of carrying them out, so the idea of periodizing training is nothing new. You may come across some training approaches that don’t plan training activities to meet a predefined outcome. These approaches either select exercises at random, or follow a routine of the athlete’s favourite exercises for a prolonged period of time in the belief they work best. The issue with unplanned programmes is that they lack focus, don’t necessarily fit around your running, and will not reflect your strength and weaknesses. Likewise, individuals who attempt to try and improve every aspect of their fitness simultaneously are likely to experience stagnated development, injury or overtraining. A systematic process of structuring training around your individual requirements, and selecting activities that are appropriate for your stage of development, is much more likely to result in steady and continual progress.

Training Period | Duration | Mode of Planning
Quadrennial | 4 years (Olympic cycle) | Long term
Macrocycle | 6–12 months |
Phase | 1–6 months | Medium term
Mesocycle | 4–6 weeks |
Microcycle | 5–10 days |
Session | 45–75 min | Short term
Unit | 10–30 min |
Exercise | 1–10 min |

Table 14a: Training periods for short-, medium- and long-term planning and typical durations.

There are a number of different levels of planning that are defined by the period of time they relate to. These are shown in Table 14a. When working with young athletes or élite runners who are striving to make an Olympic Games, a long-term development plan should be designed that identifies a general overriding focus for each year, along with interim competitions to work towards. This very general map provides a rough direction towards an ultimate goal that allows you to see the bigger picture. The difficulty with planning training this far in advance is that you are bound to face setbacks and go through periods where you develop at a quicker or slower rate than you anticipated. Therefore any planning on this scale should be fairly basic and act as no more than a flexible blueprint to refer to at the end of each training year.

LONG-TERM PLANNING

The macrocycle refers to the period of time that leads up to your next major goal. If you are a track runner, this will be planning a training year that takes you from early autumn (September/October) to your major summer championship in July or August. If you run recreationally, this means identifying an event to complete six to twelve months away, and planning your training around completing the event successfully, perhaps within a specified target time.

During the 1950s and 1960s the Eastern Europeans developed a model for progressing training activities in track and field athletes that was subsequently adopted by many Western coaches in the 1980s. Instead of working on skills and activities that were specific to the athlete’s event all year round, the model suggested that sub-components of technical skills and physical qualities that underpin performance should be the focus first. The more general the physical quality or skill, the earlier they suggested it should be developed in the macrocycle. In the months leading up to competition, this means that training carries a high level of similarity to the event.

Likewise, any training activities that require larger volumes of work should be positioned early in the training year, as these will tend to lead to high levels of fatigue, from which it takes the athlete time to recover, and which may interfere with important competitions. This approach was termed the ‘linear model’ of periodization because of the uniform shift from high to low volume and low to high intensity. Many running coaches adopt similar approaches with their endurance athletes, prescribing plenty of long slow mileage during winter months before increasing the intensity of interval type sessions and reducing mileage as the important races approach.

Over the last few decades there has been much criticism of the linear approach to planning a training macrocycle. As a result, there have been numerous attempts made by other authors and coaches over the years to find alternatives and variations to the linear model, which overcome its limitations. Models such as the ‘conjugated’ approach, ‘block periodization’, and ‘undulating’ method all offer something slightly different to the original linear model, and are likely to work better for some athletes in specific sports. However, the main issue with any model of periodization is that it doesn’t cater for the needs of individuals, therefore dissecting the relative merits and limitations of each of these approaches is a somewhat pointless task. So instead of designing a training macrocycle based around a specific model that dictates the sequence of physical qualities to develop, consider your own strengths and deficiencies, and design a plan that is appropriate for you.

Fig. 14.1: Sequence of physical qualities and skills to develop related to the main S&C activities. The concentration of green shading indicates volume of work, whereas darker red colours indicate an emphasis on intensity.

Fig. 14.1 provides an overview of how the types of S&C activities that have been described in Chapters 6 to 13 should be progressed over a long period of time. The activities listed in the first column of boxes are the start points for an S&C programme and carry a low level of specificity. They are mainly geared towards developing sound technique and building integrity in tissues that are vulnerable to injury. These activities require higher volumes of work, but are performed at a low intensity. These skills and qualities are a prerequisite to the development of attributes in the middle columns of the chart, which require a higher level of loading or speed of movement. The most explosive and intense S&C exercises, which provide a high level of transfer to running performance, should be the icing on the cake. Starting a programme here without the necessary skills or basic capacities would be foolish, as you would take longer to recover from sessions, would risk injury, and might experience early plateaus in development.

KEY INFORMATION

If you have a goal 6-12 months away, you should plan backwards from that goal. Instead of trying to develop all aspects of your fitness simultaneously or follow a well-publicised model, identify your own weaknesses and aim to improve those.

If you were following the linear model of periodization, it would be a simple case of spending a few months working in each column of the flow diagram, so in the month or two before your main goal you were mainly using high intensity exercises in low volumes. The problem with adopting this generic approach to your programming is that it assumes you are lacking in the basic physical qualities and skills listed in the first box for each set of activities. For many runners who are new to S&C, this may be a reasonable assumption, therefore spending at least the first phase of training mastering low-level movement skills and building capacity in joints vulnerable to injury, is a sensible start point. However, what if you scored very well in the movement screen assessments and achieved the gold standards across the benchmarking tests? Do you still need to spend months working on these qualities you already possess to a high level? This is where using a linear approach to programming your training macrocycle starts to fall down: it simply doesn’t cater for your individual requirements. If you have some experience of lifting weights, or have been taught basic running drills already, it is perfectly acceptable to start at a stage of this model that suits your own development. Some individuals may need to start with relatively intense exercises on one continuum, but require more basic technique work for a different area of their S&C. Equally, it may be appropriate for some individuals to spend more than a single macrocycle working to the left-hand side of the chart, which means never really doing any intense activities. This is likely to be the case for young athletes and runners who have a long history of injury.

PREPARATORY PHASES

Table 14b: Example of a periodized plan for an endurance runner aiming for a road race at the end of March.

A macrocycle is divided up into periods of time known as ‘phases’. Assuming you have a single long-term target around which you are planning your training, there are four phases you will probably need to periodize: a general preparation phase, a specific preparation or pre-competition phase, a competitive phase, and finally a rest/recuperation phase. The length of each of these phases will depend upon your goal and your individual requirements as a runner. Typically the general preparation phase will be the longest and will last between six and nine months, the specific preparation phase between one and three months, and the competitive phase, again one to three months. Table 14b shows an example of how a simple macrocycle plan could be laid out.

The purpose of the general preparatory phase is to spend time developing physical qualities and capacities that underpin performance for the event you are training for. Your running training will probably be characterized by relatively high mileage and slower speeds during this period, with the aim of building your aerobic capacity, boosting your lactate thresholds and improving your efficiency. S&C work fits in well with this phase of training as it is very general in nature and aims to drive changes to your nervous system and musculoskeletal structure that will ultimately improve performance and lower injury risk.

KEY INFORMATION

If you scored poorly on your initial assessments, practising basic exercises and building capacity in areas vulnerable to injury is a good start point for the first few months of your S&C training. If you progress well, gradually increase the loads you lift in your resistance training sessions and move onto strength/rate of activation exercises as your event gets closer.

The pre-competition phase will usually involve your mileage reducing, to allow more of your running sessions to be spent operating at around the pace you need to sustain for your main races. With improvements in your general fitness qualities from the previous phase, you should find you are able to sustain fast running speeds for longer, and to recover from these efforts quickly. You shouldn’t necessarily feel that your S&C work in this phase needs to follow the same pattern by lowering volume and increasing intensity. As discussed in the previous section, the nature of the S&C activities should be specific to your own needs, rather than simply following a predefined model of periodization. That said, it is important that as competitions approach, S&C activities are not hampering recovery for your main running sessions, so reducing volume to some degree may be wise (as shown in the example in Table 14b).

Close to your Targeted Event

If you are a track runner, your main competition phase may stretch on for three months, but if you are preparing for a one-off road race, such as a marathon, the competition phase can be considered your last few weeks of training. Here the priority should be on ensuring that you are sufficiently recovered to give your best performances in the event(s) you have been training for. This means your running training will be dramatically reduced, with any hard running completed at a speed around race pace or faster. It is important that S&C work doesn’t completely cease close to competitions. Gains made during the general preparatory phase will quickly be lost if you choose to simply run, so keep S&C ticking away in the background to ensure that qualities are maintained.

Again, the S&C activities you select in this phase should be based around your requirements as a runner, rather than just selecting sprints and explosive strength work just because it fits with the general outcomes of the phase. S&C activities will always be very general in nature, so lower the amount of S&C training you perform to ensure it doesn’t adversely affect any competitions, but use exercises that reflect your stage of development.

KEY INFORMATION

Keep S&C activities going right up until your big competition or event, but lower the number of exercises you do each week to make sure you aren’t tired for key running sessions.

Don’t Neglect a Recovery Phase

The importance of having a month or so away from running (and S&C) after you have completed your target event cannot be overstated. All too often, runners are fearful they will lose all their hard-earned gains in fitness by taking a few weeks off training, so opt to skip this phase. Although fitness will inevitably decline slightly with a month or so of little training, the long-term benefits of allowing yourself time to regenerate both physically and mentally are crucial. Taking planned rest before building your training back up to a higher volume is far better than having to take an enforced break due to illness, injury or overtraining, just when the event you have been training for is looming.

Concurrent versus Focused Development of Physical Qualities

One of the most common mistakes made by athletes and coaches when planning a training programme is to identify an objective and then simply select only exercises that develop that specific physical quality. For example, if you decide that your main goal is to improve your strength, selecting to squat, deadlift and hip thrust three times a week and do nothing else would certainly make you stronger, but is a poor approach to planning your training. If you focus solely on one or two physical qualities for extended periods of time, it becomes mundane quite quickly, you run the risk of overloading an area and getting injured, plus it also means you neglect other activities that are important to your development as a runner. If you are new to S&C, and particularly if you scored poorly on any of the assessments, with careful exercise selection it is unlikely that you require a large volume of loading to any physical quality in order to see an improvement.

S&C Training Status | Approach to Programming | Organization of Training Periods
Beginner (<1 year) | Concurrent | Target development of several physical qualities in every mesocycle/session
Intermediate (1–3 years) | Daily undulating | Several physical qualities targeted within each mesocycle but individual sessions/units dedicated to the development of specific qualities
Advanced (>3 years) | Conjugate (focused) | Phases/mesocycles dedicated to the development of one or two specific physical qualities. Maintenance of other qualities

Table 14c: General approach to the organization of S&C training activities for runners of different S&C training status.

Fig. 14.2: Example of the time spent on different S&C training activities for a beginner following a concurrent approach to programming, and an advanced runner requiring a more focused approach. ST = strength training, EST = explosive strength training, PT = plyometric training.

Different levels of experience therefore require different approaches to programming. A runner who is new to S&C will require a very different level of overload to drive a specific adaptation as compared to a runner who has been incorporating S&C into their programme for years. This doesn’t necessarily mean that the experienced runner will spend much longer on S&C activities than a novice, it just means that the organization of each training period is quite different. Table 14c provides recommended general approaches to programming for runners of different S&C training status, and Fig. 14.2 shows an example of the typical durations of activities for a concurrent and a focused approach to programming.

For a runner new to S&C, it is likely that only a low dosage of work is required to see an improvement in any physical quality, which means that multiple areas of your fitness can be targeted during each training period. This is known as a ‘concurrent’ approach to periodization, whereby most training phases and even sessions include a variety of activities designed to target several areas, but also maintain other qualities. Fig. 14.2 shows an example of this for a runner new to S&C who spends 20–25min twice a week lifting weights, includes two technical running drills and plyometrics training units, and four 10min units of conditioning exercises. These activities provide a stimulus to qualities associated with strength, plyometric, movement skill and tissue capacity, but in only around two hours of time. The total duration spent on different activities doesn’t differ enormously.

As you get stronger, more skilled and increasingly robust against injury, a small volume of work in each area is unlikely to reap the same rewards as you first experienced. Equally, if you scored well in some of the benchmarking or strength assessments, simply performing 15min of strength training or a couple of exercises for a specific joint will not lead to further improvements. One option is to increase the intensity of work in each area, and initially this should be your strategy. For example, instead of lifting 40kg, perform the same number of repetitions, but lift 45kg. For conditioning activities, start incorporating ‘strength and stiffness’ type exercises in place of ‘capacity’ work. This approach will allow you to keep improving a range of qualities for a year or two after you begin using S&C activities.

Once you reach an intermediate training status, it is advisable to start challenging yourself with higher volumes of work, which will be needed to improve further. Assuming your training programme doesn’t allow any additional time to dedicate to S&C activities, this means you will need to prioritize development of one or two qualities within each session. For example, instead of only part of an S&C session being used for resistance-training exercises, the majority of the session becomes dedicated to resistance training. Over the course of a week, some sessions should be focused around conditioning activities, and others heavily geared towards strength development. This is known as a ‘daily undulating’ approach to periodizing training.

An exaggerated version of the undulating approach is a highly focused strategy to developing one or two physical attributes for four to six weeks, then moving on to target a different physical quality. This is the hallmark of the linear model of periodization, and a characteristic of several other approaches to planning suggested in the literature. A variation of this method, known as ‘conjugated’ periodization, retains the feature of a concurrent style of programming by including training activities that maintain a high number of important physical qualities, but importantly provides a more focused overload to one or two specific areas. For runners with a background in strength training, this strategy is required to provide sufficient overload to drive further improvements, whilst maintaining other important qualities.

The example shown in Fig. 14.2 is for a runner with several years of S&C experience, who requires additional strength. The two sessions in the gym each week would need to focus almost exclusively on strength exercises, totalling around 80min. Other qualities are not completely neglected, but are maintained with a volume of work not too dissimilar to the beginner runner. Later in the training macrocycle it may be that a different physical quality is heavily overloaded to provide the necessary stimulus to further drive improvement.

KEY INFORMATION

It is important when planning your S&C that you include some exercises that target all areas each week (and possibly each session): resistance training, plyometrics, conditioning exercises and running drills. If you are new to S&C, you can have a relatively even spread across these activities and still see improvements. If you’ve been doing S&C for more than a year, it is likely that you’ll need a more focused approach, where each session is dedicated to a specific S&C activity.

MESOCYCLE PLANNING

The mesocycle is usually a period of four to six weeks where the S&C activities and exercises remain consistent. The time course of adaptations to various physiological systems varies enormously, but typically at least four to six weeks are required to bring about a meaningful change in a specific quality. Establishing no more than two principal objectives for a mesocycle will allow you to direct the emphasis of your S&C activities towards achieving these goals. The outcomes you set for each successive four to six week mesocycle should allow you to progress towards the overriding objective for the phase of training. Each mesocycle should therefore see progression in one or more variables compared to the last, but without losing sight of the direction and general purpose of the phase.

For a runner new to S&C, the overall goal for the general preparatory phase might be simply to improve basic strength. By consulting Fig. 14.1 (and Chapter 6), it is clear that movement skill needs to be developed prior to loading the exercises significantly. So for two strength-training sessions per week over a four to six week period, the runner would first look to master the basic strength exercises described in Chapter 6. Within a couple of weeks the runner should be applying a light load to their basic set of exercises, which can be loaded to a greater extent in the second mesocycle. After a period of several months the runner should be capable of lifting a reasonable amount of load across the full range of basic bilateral and unilateral strength exercises, plus some of the associated progressions.

Fig. 14.3: Examples of how S&C volume (measured in total duration, load lifted or number of repetitions) could be fluctuated through a mesocycle for different scenarios.

Although the balance of activities and exercises selected should stay relatively fixed during a training mesocycle, there are different approaches to manipulating the volume and intensity of work within a mesocycle, so the amount of work completed each week varies. This is necessary to ensure that a progressively increasing overload is provided, but also that after several weeks of hard training, a recovery week is included. Fig. 14.3 shows three different mesocycle scenarios, and how the total S&C volume for each week could be fluctuated.

The standard cycle of loading is a four-week ‘step-load’ pattern, where three weeks progressively increase in terms of volume of repetitions and/or load lifted, and then the fourth week is taken as an easy week with fewer repetitions/less load. This type of step-loading pattern is suitable for runners experienced in S&C, or who have important races scheduled every fourth week throughout a phase. For a beginner, however, it is unnecessary to pay too much attention to the fluctuations in the repetitions or loads lifted each week. If the outcome is based around the development of technical skill, there will not be sufficient overload to specific physical capacities to warrant an easy week. If the volume of load lifted were tracked over a four-week period, it would probably represent a gradual linear increase, as shown by the blue bars in Fig. 14.3. During periods of heavy competition, it is necessary to taper down S&C activities, and to lighten the loads lifted in the days leading into a race. This will dramatically reduce S&C training volume in those weeks, as shown by the orange bars in Fig. 14.3.

KEY INFORMATION

Design yourself an S&C training programme that changes focus every 4-6 weeks. This is generally how long it takes to achieve an objective and prevents boredom with an exercise routine. It is important you plan your 4-6 week training blocks around your events. If you race regularly, you will need to prioritize S&C on weeks without an event, so you can afford to ease back slightly on race weeks.

INCORPORATING S&C INTO YOUR TRAINING WEEK

The decision around where and when to do your S&C in the training microcycle is very individual. For the well trained or élite runner it is usually relatively straightforward to identify a few times in the training week where a gym session can be inserted, or a mini conditioning routine tagged on to the end of an easy run. However, if you have a busy lifestyle and struggle to squeeze your running training into your usual routine, incorporating S&C activities into your diary requires a little more creativity and imagination. There is no need to assume that hour-long sessions in a gym are required to produce a meaningful S&C session. Dividing your exercises into training units of as little as 10–15min several times per week can, over time, make a huge difference to your running (see later section ‘Making effective use of your warm-ups and cool-downs’).

Table 14d: Suggested frequency of S&C activities each week and organization around running-based sessions.

Table 14d provides guidelines on how many times each week various S&C activities should be included around your running sessions, and how much recovery you should allow before the same or similar training can be performed again. The difference in the volume of work that a runner new to S&C will require compared to a runner who has been using S&C activities for years is reflected in how many times per week a stimulus is required, and how much time should be dedicated to the activities. It may seem as if there is an enormous amount of S&C work to do each week, but actually there isn’t! This is why ‘training units’ rather than sessions are important in S&C. It is impossible to fit everything into one session. A couple of exercises designed to provide a conditioning stimulus to an area will provide sufficient overload to develop a specific quality, and that may take less than ten minutes. Likewise, a running drill routine can be incorporated into a warm-up routine prior to a run or interval training session, and this may take around ten minutes.

For a beginner, most S&C activities can be put together with other training units or running sessions, which makes for an efficient use of time. For advanced athletes, this same approach can be used to maintain qualities. Other qualities that are identified as the focus for a training phase will require a greater overload, which warrants a dedicated session.

Table 14e: Examples of how to organize S&C training sessions/units around running sessions for a recreational and a well trained runner.
* Green highlighted boxes indicate priority running sessions for the week.

To plan how your S&C activities will fit round your training, first map out your typical training week, like the examples shown in Table 14e. It is likely that there will be some training sessions that you consider priorities in the week: these might be interval-training sessions once or twice a week, a long run, or a regular time trial you perform. Highlight or underline these sessions as the key ones for the week (see the example in Table 14e). If you are not experienced in S&C, you should avoid including much more than a set of technical drills in the warm-up and some stretches after the workout on these days. On other days where you either don’t run or just have a lighter recovery session, you can include the more demanding S&C training units either as a separate session or tagged on to the end of your standard session. So ideally you might perform a mini plyometric routine (10min), a mobilization routine (10min), a series of strength exercises (30min) and a mini trunk-training circuit (10min) as a 1hr session. If you can’t find a whole hour of time, split up these units over the course of the training week and perform one or two after each of your easy runs, ensuring you allow sufficient time to recover.

KEY INFORMATION

Plan your S&C exercises into ‘training units’ rather than sessions. For the beginner, training units should last 10-30 minutes, so if you can dedicate an hour of time to an S&C session you can potentially target 2-5 units in a session. Designing training units also makes it easier to include a small amount of S&C before or after each of your runs if you have a busy lifestyle.

If you are a well trained runner and able to dedicate more time to training, there is less need to combine S&C activities with your runs. If you have experience in strength and plyometric training in particular, it is advisable that these activities are kept separate from your running sessions and perhaps only combined with a unit of conditioning or mobility exercises. Likewise, for experienced runners, a couple of circuit-style sessions each week dedicated to conditioning routines will be required to provide sufficient overload to the tissues.

If you are attempting to complete two to three hard interval-type sessions each week as well as log a high mileage, recovery is likely to be maximized if key S&C sessions are placed on the same day as (and after) hard sessions. Although this risks the quality of the S&C session being compromised, this approach ensures that recovery days are used for the regeneration of physiological systems and tissues, rather than an opportunity to spread the demanding sessions across the week.

DESIGNING SESSIONS AND TRAINING UNITS

With objectives for a mesocycle in mind, it should be fairly straightforward to select appropriate sets of exercises that are arranged into training units. As indicated in Table 14c, to develop or maintain multiple physical qualities simultaneously, it is recommended that you incorporate mini units of S&C into your routine almost daily. If you attempt to include everything in one or two long sessions you risk neglecting important areas, and the acquisition of new movement skills will be slower. Breaking S&C up into mini chunks will provide much more structure and purpose to your daily training routine, and allow you to include a greater amount of training.

Fig. 14.4: Order of training units within a session.

If time allows, you may have one to three sessions per week dedicated to S&C that last between 45 and 75min. Think of sessions as including two to five training units that form a single training session. It is also important to consider the order in which you complete activities in these sessions; Fig. 14.4 provides an outline of how you should organize training units within a session.

Fig. 14.5: Examples of training unit proportion within sessions for a runner new to S&C, an intermediate (>1 year experience) and an advanced runner (several years’ experience).

The proportion of time spent on each set of activities should reflect the priorities for the training block, and the level of overload you require to develop the quality. Based on the information presented in tables 14c and 14d, an example of how training activities might be distributed for a beginner, intermediate and advanced level runner are presented in Fig 14.5.

For the beginner, a relatively low volume of work is likely to bring about a response, therefore it is possible to include four or five training units or activities within a single session lasting no more than an hour. The example in Fig. 14.5 shows how movement skill, plyometrics, strength training and some specific conditioning work can be included in the same session. For runners with some background in S&C, a more focused approach to overload is required; therefore no more than three training activities should be included in a session. The example for the advanced runner who has been using S&C for a number of years shows that a whole session should be dedicated to one activity (for example, strength training) with a focus on only one or two qualities (such as explosive strength and bilateral strength). A separate session at another time in the week may be focused solely around plyometric training or conditioning exercises.

KEY INFORMATION

Include training units such as plyometrics and resistance training early in an S&C session, straight after a warm-up. Unilateral resistance training and conditioning exercises should come later in a session.

EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION

Once you have identified the physical qualities you intend to target in a session or training unit, you should then select the most appropriate exercises. Use the summary tables provided towards the start of each exercise chapter to pick the best exercise(s) for overloading the physical quality you wish to improve. However, selecting the appropriate exercise to challenge a system or specific area is only half of the task, and it is just as important to identify the correct number of sets and repetitions, in addition to ensuring you allow appropriate rest between sets.

Table 14f: Summary of exercise prescription for main S&C outcomes.

Table 14f provides a summary of the main outcomes targeted with S&C activities. Avoid relying too heavily on this summary table, however, and ensure you check the specific prescription provided for each exercise in the relevant chapter. For strength-training exercises, the load to use on each exercise will depend upon your goal and training background. Across the majority of exercises, select a resistance that allows you to perform the prescribed number of repetitions without your technique breaking down, but so it feels about a seven or eight out of ten in terms of difficulty (ten being that you can only just finish the set).

Table 14g: Example of a training unit for improving running technique in a beginner.

Table 14h: Example of a conditioning training unit for a beginner.

Table 14i: Example of a conditioning training unit for a runner with some S&C experience.

The number of exercises that you should pick to overload a specific quality is, again, largely a function of your training background. As a general rule, when developing skill and structural type qualities associated with injury prevention, adopt a higher volume approach to programming, so use a larger number of exercises. Physical qualities that demand a higher quality of work will tend to improve by using a smaller number of exercises. This is reflected in Table 14f. If you are new to S&C, it is likely that you will only need to perform two to three sets on a couple of exercises (minimum twice per week) to elicit a training response. For the well trained runner who is accustomed to S&C activities, three to five sets on at least three exercises will be required to provide sufficient overload to a specific quality. A few examples of training units for different outcomes are provided in tables 14g–i. Chapters 6 and 7 include similar examples for resistance training and plyometric training respectively.

WARM-UP FOR S&C TRAINING SESSIONS/UNITS

Fig. 14.6: Principles of a warm-up and example activities for a strength and plyometric training session/unit.

Prior to performing a strength training, plyometrics or intense conditioning session, it is important that you complete a 10–15min warm-up routine. A warm-up should prepare you physically and psychologically for the activities you are about to complete in the main training session or unit. On a basic level, a warm-up should include a general component and also a more specific set of exercises that bears close resemblance to the activities in the main session. Fig. 14.6 provides a more detailed visual representation of the characteristics associated with the different stages of a warm-up, plus an example of suitable activities to include prior to a strength-training and plyometric session.

The general phase should result in a number of physiological adjustments that allow intense exercise to be performed to a high level without risking injury. These physiological responses include an increase in body and muscle temperature, an elevated breathing frequency, a redistribution of blood to working muscles, and a lubrication of joints. These adjustments benefit any type of S&C training session, as they enhance the velocity of nerve signalling, improve recovery rates between intense bouts of work, and allow joints to move through a wide range of motion. Low intensity activities that are simple but rhythmic and continuous in nature are the best for eliciting this type of response. Jogging is the obvious example of an activity that possesses these characteristics, but in an S&C context, marching, skipping, running drills and dynamic bodyweight exercises are a better use of time.

After about 3–5min, warm-up activities should progressively become more intense, complex and specific. Exercises with these characteristics will usually require a small amount of rest between sets, so instead of moving around continuously with few or no breaks, you should start walking back from a drill or take a 30sec breather between exercises. A series of dynamic mobilizations is ideal to include at this point as a wider range of motion can be achieved, and the movements resemble ones that will usually be under load in the forthcoming session.

The final few minutes of a warm-up is often termed the ‘potentiation phase’, as it aims to directly enhance performance in the session by improving the recruitment and coordination of the nervous system. It should involve some increasingly intense bursts of activity that essentially replicate the skills you need to perform first in the session. For a hard running session this is likely to be a series of fast strides with a walk-back recovery. For a strength-training session this stage of the warm-up should allow a seamless transition up to the working weight for the first exercise. If three sets of six repetitions at 60kg on the back squat is first on your programme, the final stage of the warm-up could be one x twelve reps at 20kg, one x eight reps at 40kg and one x six reps at 50kg. The organization of work-to-rest should be discrete, with 1–2min recoveries between warm-up sets. For a plyometrics session, a set of sub-maximal jumps, hops and bounds should be performed at an intensity slightly lower than that prescribed in the session.

KEY INFORMATION

Before resistance and plyometric training sessions it is important to perform a warm-up. Warm-up activities should prepare you physically and mentally for the session you are about to complete. Start a warm-up with gentle continuous exercises such as jumping, skipping and marching drills. Then move on to a series of dynamic mobilizations before finally performing a couple of exercises with a little load or intensity similar to the first ones in your session.

Making Effective Use of your Running Warm-Ups and Cool-Downs

If you are the type of runner who lacks time and needs to prioritize their running sessions over any other training, the warm-ups and cool-downs during your running sessions become an important part of your daily routine. Instead of completing a 5–10min easy jog and your standard routine of static stretches before and after your runs, consider making these periods more structured and purposeful.

Table 14j: Suggestions for incorporating S&C training units (lasting 10–15min) into warm-up and cool-down routines.

As one of the overriding objectives of S&C is to improve quality of movement, the warm-up is a great opportunity to spend some time practising skills that both prepare you for the subsequent session and provide a training effect in their own right. In this regard, avoid viewing the warm-up as a means to an end, and try and view it as an opportunity to improve physical qualities. Over an extended period of time this will add considerable value to your training programme. Table 14j provides some suggestions of S&C activities that you could include in low volumes before and after running sessions if you cannot dedicate entire sessions to S&C during the week.

Prior to interval training sessions, which are likely to be the toughest of your training week, it is important not to include any activities that will cause excessive fatigue. A 5–10min jog plus a series of mobilizations and running drills is a good use of pre-session preparation time. A few technical strides and even extended sprints (of 200–300m) have also been shown to benefit performance in an interval running session. Well trained runners will often include some high-intensity running post-workout too, and there are several benefits to doing this if you aren’t completely exhausted already! Firstly, it can be quite beneficial to practise your running form under fatigue: if technique holds up well after a tough session, it is also less likely to break down at the end of a hard race. Secondly, from a physiological perspective, it is also likely that a small amount of high-intensity activity will facilitate recovery from the hard session. As long as the sprints don’t add to your fatigue, this type of work will help shunt waste products away from overworked muscles, prevent blood pooling and increase oxygen supply. Thirdly, running close to flat out at the end of a session will teach the body to produce a fast finish, even when under a considerable amount of fatigue.

Prior to easy runs, which are likely to have a lower priority in your training agenda, including a set of conditioning or mobilization exercises can often be beneficial. A set of dynamic mobilizations or hurdle walkovers will usually be enough to activate the muscles you’ll be using for running and make you more aware of how to hold a good posture. Although it is important not to completely fatigue muscles you’ll need to rely on when running, a short gluteal and/or barefoot conditioning routine is likely to activate key stabilizing muscles around your hips, ankles and feet. Save the more fatiguing whole-body exercises for after easy runs, such as work on the trunk, hamstrings and calf/Achilles. Spending 10–15min conditioning these areas after four to five easy runs per week adds up to a very worthwhile overall stimulus by the end of the week.

Wherever possible, strength training should be performed as a separate session or training unit to ensure exercises are performed to a high standard. However, if you are tight on time, including a short strength-training routine after your easy runs will suffice. Some recent scientific research has also shown that a short bout of resistance training after an easy run can actually enhance endurance adaptation. Upon finishing your run, it is important that you consume a snack high in protein and carbohydrate before you embark upon a set of resistance-training exercises.

KEY INFORMATION

Training units of running drills and mobilizations can be included before you start your runs. Conditioning units of training that potentially target 1-3 areas can be done after runs or within S&C sessions. Stretches can also be completed after runs. Resistance and plyometric training units should be completed separately whenever possible.

CHAPTER 15: CASE STUDY EXAMPLES

The overriding aim of this book was to arm endurance runners and coaches with the tools and knowledge required to write their own S&C training programme. Although a sound understanding of biomechanics and physiology certainly helps when it comes to making decisions on the best exercises to select, writing a training programme will never be an exact science. Magazines and Internet pages are filled with suggestions on the best exercise or training session for runners to perform, but it is no coincidence that recommendations always differ. A magic formula simply doesn’t exist. If there were a standard session that worked for runners at every stage of their development, all year round, this book would have taken significantly less time to write!

The prescription of training activities and combinations of exercises, volumes and intensities should be individualized for every runner. When training background, injury history, personal constraints and screening results are taken into account, each individual will require a bespoke training programme that caters for their own particular needs. The examples used throughout this book have hopefully been helpful in illustrating the planning process being described, but taken in isolation, each lacks context. The purpose of this final chapter is to pull together the information presented in this book by describing three case studies. By ‘joining the dots’ between each stage of the planning process with some real-life examples, you will hopefully be inspired to write your own S&C programme with the information presented in this book.

KEY INFORMATION

There is no precise strategy for writing the perfect training programme. Based upon your assessment results and the information presented in this book, have a stab at constructing your own plan. There is no need to make it complicated. Start by learning the basic techniques and build capacity around the joints vulnerable to injury. Over time, progressively add more intensity in the form of load, speed of movement and complexity of the exercises you select.

CASE STUDY ONE: THE BEGINNER WITHOUT ACCESS TO A GYM

Victoria enjoys running three to four times a week to keep fit and healthy. She generally runs for distances of between 5 and 10km, but has recently decided to run a half-marathon for charity. She often gets aches and pains following her runs and was told by a friend that she might benefit from some S&C exercises to supplement her running. She has no access to a gym, so will need an S&C programme that can be carried out at home.

Assessment Results

Table 15a: Victoria’s assessment results.

After an initial telephone discussion with Victoria, she was assessed according to the movement screen and benchmarking tests given in Chapter 4. The results of the assessment are shown on the recording sheet in Table 15a. It was noted that when standing, Victoria has a slight kyphotic posture, and this appeared to impact on her ability to achieve some of the technical positions on her movement screen: for example, the broomstick was not over the crown of her head during the overhead squat, and her chest was not up during the walking lunge and the hop and stick. The two main consistent errors picked up from her movement screen were the lack of skill (balance and control) across most exercises, and misalignment at the ankle–knee–hip when she moved into squat movement patterns – the overhead squat, walking lunge, hop and stick.

As Victoria had never performed any S&C-type exercises before, it was not surprising and fairly normal to find that her benchmarking scores mostly rated as poor. She did, however, possess adequate calf capacity, scoring at the upper end of the ‘satisfactory’ bracket of repetitions for both legs. It was noted that she occasionally gets some stiffness in her lower back, and her right knee can sometimes be painful during runs, although this hasn’t caused her to miss any training.

Based upon Victoria’s S&C experience and her assessment profile, the following initial objectives were set for the first six weeks of her S&C programme:

* | To develop competence in fundamental movement skills
* | To improve basic strength and stability around the hips

Strength and Conditioning Weekly Plan

Table 15b: Training plan (including S&C activities) for Victoria. Important runs are highlighted green.

Victoria usually goes out for runs on the days she doesn’t work (Thursday and Sunday) plus another one or two evenings, depending upon her schedule. She stated that she has time for one full S&C session on a Friday, plus she can fit other exercises in around her runs. Table 15b shows how Victoria’s S&C activities were organized around her running. As Victoria lacks time, S&C training units are intended to be short.

Strength and Conditioning Training Units

Table 15c: Home-based strength-training session for Victoria.

Table 15d: Home-based conditioning session for Victoria.

Table 15e: Pre-run drills and mobilizations for Victoria.

Tables 15c, 15d and 15e show Victoria’s training units that were completed before and after her running sessions. The main (home-based) strength session was performed on a Friday evening. The stretches prescribed were those detailed under the ‘static stretching’ section of Chapter 13.

CASE STUDY TWO: THE YOUNG ENDURANCE RUNNER

Ed is a talented sixteen-year-old athlete who recently decided to focus his sporting ambitions on becoming a successful endurance runner. Last summer he reached the national schools 1,500m final even though he was only running three to four times every week. He trains with a good group of other young runners at his local athletics club who all have the same coach. Their coach has a thorough and sensible approach to developing his young athletes, so is seeking advice on the type of S&C that athletes of this age should be performing to support their running. The coach has access to a basic gym facility where the athletes meet to train, and is keen to implement a couple of sessions a week with his group.

Assessment Results

Table 15f: Ed’s assessment results.

Table 15f shows that Ed is clearly a talented runner and has been taught to move relatively well on basic movements. The skill Ed possesses on these fundamental movement patterns means that it is safe for him to start introducing some load in the gym under the supervision of his coach. The range and control he exhibited across most basic movement skills was excellent, but importantly he didn’t appear to be using his gluteals particularly well. This was shown by poor alignment at ankle–knee–hip when squatting, and very knee-dominant patterns when lungeing and landing from his hop and stick. He also performed his vertical jumps and reactive strength index test (drop jump) by bending mainly through the knees, which left the hips contributing very little to the movement pattern. During the prone extension test, despite achieving an excellent score, he reported feeling all the strain going through his lower back.

Despite Ed being a 1,500m runner, his explosive strength scores and 400m speed are very good. He is naturally quite powerful, but is very tall and skinny (54kg), and this brings a risk of injury in the future. Therefore it was decided that Ed should focus his attentions on strengthening his bones and connective tissue through resistance training and conditioning exercises. His benchmarking scores are reasonable but he appears to be weak in the upper body and mainly using his lower back to stabilize his trunk.

The following objectives were recommended for Ed and his coach:

* | To introduce basic strength and plyometric training (hip focused)
* | To develop a greater repertoire of movement skills

Strength and Conditioning Weekly Plan

Over the course of the winter, Ed’s coach plans to have him running five times per week, which includes three supervised group training sessions. To supplement this, Ed will perform a main strength-training session on a Wednesday evening, plus a shorter gym-based session on a Saturday afternoon following a morning club run. At the moment, Ed performs a jog, and stretches and strides before his main club runs, so there is also an opportunity to work on some basic movements and technical drills prior to these sessions.

Table 15g: Training plan (including S&C activities) for Ed. Key sessions are highlighted green.

Strength and Conditioning Training Units

Table 15h: Wednesday evening strength-training session for Ed.

Table 15i: Saturday strength and conditioning session for Ed.

Table 15j: Home-based conditioning session for Ed.

Table 15k: Pre-session drills and mobilizations for Ed.

Tables 15h, 15i and 15k outline the content of Ed’s training units over the course of each week. The priority Wednesday evening S&C session contains a simple warm-up circuit of exercises, followed by six basic resistance and plyometric exercises, and a couple of conditioning exercises for hamstrings and trunk. The Saturday session is less focused and moves from hurdle walkover drills designed to develop movement skill and posture, to the gym for twelve sets of strength-training exercises and a conditioning circuit. The home-based sessions are much shorter (15–20min) and focus on developing ankle/foot integrity and trunk capacity. The stretches prescribed were those detailed under the ‘static stretching’ section of Chapter 13. The pre-session routine contains a few activation exercises for the feet and ankles, followed by some basic walking and skipping drills to work on running technique.

CASE STUDY THREE: THE INTERNATIONAL RUNNER WITH STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING EXPERIENCE

Peter is an accomplished endurance runner with a number of international vests to his name, and several major track and cross-country championships under his belt. He began a formal S&C programme three years ago, which has progressed each year and has helped reduce his injury rate substantially. Although he hasn’t picked up any serious injuries over the last couple of years, Peter finds his Achilles tendon ‘niggles’ occasionally, particularly around April/May each year when he begins to run on the track more frequently. Peter receives S&C coaching support at least once a week, and has established a training routine that works well for him and his coach, which is presented in Table 15n.

Assessment Results

Table 15l: Peter’s assessment results

As expected of a runner with S&C experience, the assessment results shown in Table 15l reveal that Peter moves well on basic movement skills. However, he appears to be very tight in many areas, particularly the ankles and hips, which prevents him moving into full range in the overhead squat, arabesque and standing rotation. This is a common issue in well trained runners who run a very high mileage. His benchmarking scores are all in the excellent category, with the exception of his calf raise and press-ups. He also appears to have an imbalance in strength between his calves, as a discrepancy of eight reps in favour of his left side was noted. Rectifying this imbalance and building additional capacity around his calves/Achilles may prevent the pain he suffers after track workouts. Peter’s strength and power testing scores were satisfactory, but there is certainly room for further improvement.

Based on these assessment results and the progression of Peter’s S&C training over the last few years, the programme for the first phase of training was based on the following objectives:

* | To develop capacity around the foot/ankle (especially the right side)
* | To increase strength and explosive strength (and reactive strength once calf capacity improves)
* | To improve the range of movement around the hips and ankles

Strength and Conditioning Training Units

Table 15m: Training plan (including S&C activities) for Peter. Key sessions are highlighted green.

Table 15n: Tuesday afternoon resistance-training session for Peter.

Table 15o: Saturday strength-training session for Peter.

Table 15p: Monday and Wednesday conditioning session for Peter.

Table 15q: Pre-session drills and mobilizations for Peter.

The training sessions and units presented in Tables 15n, 15o, 15p and 15q show some quite focused overload to target specific qualities. Volume and/or intensity are generally higher than the two other runners presented in Case Studies One and Two, as is movement complexity. In order to ensure that Peter does not suffer from any recurrence of his Achilles tendon injury, two conditioning training units (plus aspects of other sessions) focus on loading this area directly. Eccentric calf raises have been shown to be particularly effective for rehabilitating the Achilles tendon, so these are included three times a week through this phase of training. Some low-level plyometric work is included (drop jumps, technical drills, hurdle skips) in relatively low volumes to build resilience in the foot/ankle, before higher intensity plyometric exercises are implemented later in the season. Exercises targeting the trunk, hamstrings and glutes specifically are all ‘strength’ or ‘rate of activation’ focused, as Peter possesses excellent capacity in these areas.

Strength work is centred around two focused sessions over the course of the week, and has progressed from his previous programme in terms of the loads being lifted. Some technical explosive strength exercises are included, but this isn’t the focus until later phases of training. Hip and calf mobility work is present in every S&C session in different forms. Several times a week Peter spends 5–10min on the foam roller. Bodyweight mobilizations, hurdle walkovers and barbell movement preparation all provide dynamic strategies to improve mobility around the hips. The stretches prescribed were those detailed under the ‘static stretching’ section of Chapter 13, but several were adapted to accommodate a ‘banded distraction’ progression.

INDEX

Active insufficiency 195

Aerobic 15, 17, 19, 72, 264

Anaerobic 17-20, 72, 87

Ankle conditioning 179-194

Ankling drill 186, 190, 194, 214, 217-219

Arabesque 50-54, 200, 246

Errors and correction 51-54

Technique 50, 200

Arm drive 235, 237

Assessment (or testing) 41-76

Case studies 279-290

Frequency 45

Order 44

Purpose 41-42

Recording sheet 66

Rules 43

Safety 43

Types 44-46

Barefoot running 159, 181-190

Debate 159, 181-182

Drills 182-190

Bent over row 114, 120-123

Big toe function 180

Bilateral deficit 105

Bounding 146, 154-156, 235

Box jumps 136

Errors and corrections 136-139

Safety 136

Technique 137-138

Bridges 102-104

Errors and corrections 104

Single leg 102-103

Broomstick sprints 235, 236

Cable exercises 175-176

Calf raise 67-68, 188, 189, 190-191, 192-193

Case studies 279-292

Beginner 279 283

International 288-292

Young athlete 283-288

Circuit training 44, 93, 158, 271

Cleans 125-131

Errors and corrections 128-131

Hang 125-126

Power 126-128

Concentric 24, 26, 93, 131, 141, 143, 151, 196

Concurrent 137-138

Programming 137-138

Training 137-138

Conjugated programming 262, 267

Core stability 165-166

Myth 165-66

Crawling 58, 246

Daily undulating programming 266, 267

Deadlift 97-102

Errors and correction 98-99, 100-102

Technique 98, 99

Delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS) 81

Depth jumps 151-153

Diet 38-39

Dips 115-116, 117, 118

Double leg hold test 71-72

Drills 178, 182-183, 213-237

A-drills (early recovery) 214, 219-224

B-drills (late recovery) 214, 224-228

Ground contact 214, 215-219

Eccentric 24, 25, 26, 27, 32, 81, 93, 122, 131, 141, 142, 143, 151, 189, 195, 196

Elasticity (or elastic energy) 141-142, 145, 146, 156, 179

Energy systems 17-20

Female runners 204, 205

Flexibility 39, 219, 238, 240-250, 258

Definition 238

Improving 240-250

Foam rolling 57, 112, 248-250

Foot 179-194

Exercises 183-188

Function 179

Injuries 179, 180, 181

Specific running drills 163, 183-194

Strike 33-34

Fractional utilization 14, 16-17

Gluteals 26, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 203-212

Anatomy 26

Capacity 26, 29

Function 26, 27, 31, 33, 35, 204, 205

Prescription of exercises 49, 50, 204, 206-212

Specific running drills 163, 206-212

Strengthening 203-212

Glute bridge 102-103, 104, 212

Hamstrings 195-201

Bridge assessment 198

Capacity exercises 197-200

Function 195-196

Injury risk 195-196

Prescription of exercises 196-198

Rate of activation 201-202

Strengthening 196-197

Hill running (or sprinting) 235

Hip flexor exercises 242, 243, 246, 252

Hip hinge 52, 98, 200

Hip thrust 103-104

Hop and stick 63-67

Errors and correction 64-67

Technique 63

Test 67

Hopping 153-155

Hurdle 147-151, 228-234

Jumps 147-148, 149-151

Walkovers 228-234

Hypermobility 255

Hypertrophy 78, 79

Individualization 84, 279

Injury 10, 13, 20, 22-40, 41, 42, 46, 49, 50, 64, 67, 79, 85, 89, 93, 100, 105, 113, 122, 125, 145, 159, 161-164, 179, 181, 195, 197-202, 215, 238, 251

Lowering risk of 10, 38-40, 41, 42, 85, 93, 105, 113, 125, 251

Prevention principles 28, 41, 145, 161-164, 197-202

Risk 13, 20, 28, 29, 31, 32, 38, 46, 49, 50, 64, 89, 100, 122, 159, 181, 215, 238

Types 31, 36-38, 179, 195

Intensity 15-19, 92, 234-237, 260

Interference effect 79

Inverted row 118-119, 121-122

Isometric 24-26, 35, 141, 146, 166, 180, 189, 204

Jump testing 73

Kettlebell swings 201-202

Lactate threshold 17-20, 264

Lactic acid 18

Long term athlete development 21, 84, 261

Lower back pain 31, 165, 166, 167

Lunge 54-58, 106, 108-109, 246-247, 252

Errors and correction 55-58, 109

Technique 54, 108-109, 246-247, 252

Walking 54-58, 246-247

Macrocycle 261-263, 267

Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) 15-17, 20

Medicine balls 131-133, 134, 177-178, 234, 252

Exercises 132-133, 177-178, 234, 252

Safety 132

Throws 132-133, 177-178

Mesocycle 268-269, 271

Microcycle 269

Mobility 47, 48, 228-233, 238-258, 271, 277-278

Definition 238

Dynamic mobilizations 228-233, 240-241

Importance 47, 48, 238-239

Prescription 271, 277-278

Monitoring 41

Movement 41, 44, 46-47, 239, 240

Preparation 240

Screening 41, 44, 46-47, 239

Muscle 11-13, 15-19, 24-27, 78, 80-81, 83, 142

Mass (or size) 11, 12, 15-16, 78

Fibre type 15-16, 87

Nordic curls 200-201

One repetition maximum (1RM) testing 46, 73, 92

Orthotics 180-181

Overhead press 116-118

Passive insufficiency 53

Peaking and tapering 264, 268

Periodization 260-271

Competition phase 264

Linear model 261-263

Phases 263-268

Recovery phase 265

Planks 41-42, 71, 169-170, 171

Plantar fascia 183, 184, 186, 187, 244, 255

Plyometrics 141-160

Definition 141

Errors and corrections 156-158

Evidence 145

Exercises 146-156

Low level 183, 214, 215, 234, 288

Training prescription 158

Safety 148, 158-159

Session design 160

Pogo jumps 147, 148, 149, 156, 187

Posterior chain 27, 33, 35, 51, 197

Posture 29-31, 39, 51, 57-58, 65, 113

Specific running drills 228-234

Types 29-31

Press-ups 69, 114-115, 117

Pronation 34-35, 62, 64, 179-180

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation

(PNF) 256

Proprioceptors 80, 142-143

Pulling exercises 114, 118-123

Typical errors and corrections 121-123

Pushing exercises 114-116

Typical errors and corrections 117-118

Range of movement 29, 31, 38, 47, 49, 53, 61, 81-89-90, 93, 94, 95, 117, 123, 131, 166, 197, 238, 240, 249, 250, 288

Reactive strength index (RSI) 75-76, 151, 283

Recovery 28-29, 31-33, 38-39, 92-93, 196, 219, 224

Reflexes 142-143

Reliability 42-43

Repeat bout effect 81

Resistance training 86-140

Adaptations 86-87

Evidence for 86, 88

Intensity 92

Recovery 92-93

Repetitions 90-91

Risk of injury

Safety

Session design 139

Sets 91-92

Technique 89

Tempo 93-94

Reverse lunge 108-109

Romanian deadlift (RDL) 98-99

Errors and corrections 99

Running economy 20-21

Self-myofascial release 248-249

Shin splints 189

Shoes 160, 180-182

Side plank 71, 171

Skipping drills 183, 190, 221-222, 226-227

Specificity 11, 82, 83, 105, 135, 159

Split squat

Rear foot elevated

Sprinting 277-278

Squat 47-50, 73, 95-97, 107, 109, 110-111, 131-132, 133, 242-243, 247-248

Back 73, 96

Bodyweight 247-248

Errors and correction 48-50, 97, 111, 134

Goblet 96

Jumps 131-132, 133

Single leg 109, 110-111

Standing rotation 60-62

Errors and corrections 61-62

Technique 61

Step and stick 155

Stepping exercises 109-113

Errors and corrections 111-113

Step-ups 109-110

Strength 12, 27, 73-75, 77-142, 167, 197

Explosive 12, 27, 76, 94, 123-124, 197

Importance of 123-124, 157

Maximum 12

Tests 73-75

Training prescription 269-270

Types 12-13

Stretching 238-258

Active stretches 240

Contract-relax method 256-257

Distraction stretches 256

Fascial stretches 257

Microstretching 258

Static stretches 250-252

Warm-ups 240, 241, 251-252

Stretch shortening cycle (SSC) 24, 25

Definition 24, 25

Mechanisms 24, 25

Stride 22-23

Frequency 22-23

Length 22-23

Supination 34, 62, 180

Superman 58-60, 171

Errors and corrections 59-60

Technique 58-59

Swiss balls 166, 170 173, 198-199, 202, 211

Thoracic spine 29, 39, 47, 167, 241, 245, 247, 252

Mobility 39, 47, 167, 245, 247, 252

Training session design 271-275

Training unit design 269, 271-275

Triple extension 11, 95, 129, 130, 136, 157

Trunk 165-178

Capacity 165, 169, 170, 171, 288

Control 178

Function 166-167

Specific running drills 178

Training/Exercises 169-178

Unilateral exercises 56, 58, 91, 105-106, 146

Unstable surfaces 166

Upper body 71, 102, 113-114, 115-123, 167

Exercises 71, 113-114, 115-123

Valgus collapse 50, 56, 64, 112, 138, 156, 204

Validity 42

Warm-up 39, 276-278

Potentiation 276

Use of stretches 240, 241, 251-252

Weightlifting 124-135

Young athletes 17, 20-21, 42, 83, 84, 85, 160, 205, 261, 263, 283